Burning nettle is a noxious weed that commonly infests coastal California vegetable fields. Weed control programs for lettuce and fresh spinach grown in this area do not adequately control burning nettle, and escaped weeds that mature are highly problematic during hand weeding and harvesting. Information on the biology and ecology of burning nettle is limited, and work was conducted to develop information about this weed. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of temperature on burning nettle germination and to determine its base temperature value, to characterize the germination pattern of this weed and seedbanks under local California coastal conditions, and to estimate the optimal timing for burning nettle removal by herbicides and physical methods. The upper optimal temperature for burning nettle germination was 22.8 C, but there was no difference in the final germination percentage between 4 and 22.8 C. The base temperature was determined to be 3 6 0.2 C, and this information allowed the development of temperature-based optimal control timing models. In the field, burning nettle emerged throughout the year without any seasonal pattern, and germinable seeds were also found in the seedbank throughout the year. Burning nettle was able to complete a growth cycle throughout the year in coastal California. Burning nettle has a short growth cycle that allows it to set viable seeds within 466 6 13 growing degree days (GDD), and this timing is critical for burning nettle removal by herbicides, cultivation, or hand weeding. The optimal timing for phenmedipham application at 180 g ai ha–1 was estimated to be 205 GDD. The germination and seedbank field studies indicate why burning nettle is so well adapted to the mild climate of coastal California. However, results presented here suggest strategies to reduce the burning nettle seedbank, improve its control, and allow more efficient lettuce and fresh spinach production.

Carrot is a high-value cash crop that is grown in Israel throughout the year. Egyptian broomrape is a chlorophyll-lacking, obligate, root holoparasite that parasitizes members of many botanical families, including the Apiaceae. At high infestation levels, Egyptian broomrape can cause total yield loss in carrot. A protocol has been developed for the control of Egyptian broomrape in carrot. Because carrots are grown in Israel under fall, winter, and spring conditions, information about the relations between the efficacy of control and temperature is important. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the response of carrot and Egyptian broomrape to herbicides at different phenological stages under varying temperature regimes. This study was conducted under temperature-controlled conditions in a multiclimate greenhouse and in a net house. Applications of the imidazolinone herbicides imazapic and imazamox (each applied at 4.8 g ai ha−1) injured carrot plants and reduced yield and yield quality. Glyphosate effectively controlled Egyptian broomrape and did not negatively affect the carrot plants when applied three times at ≤ 108 g ae ha−1. High temperatures increased the carrot plants’ sensitivity to glyphosate. This study found that three applications of glyphosate at 108 g ae ha−1 can prevent Egyptian broomrape damage without causing any damage to the carrot crop. Our results indicate that weather conditions can affect herbicide phytotoxicity in carrot. The highest temperature at the time of herbicide application corresponded to the strongest observed phytotoxic effect. To summarize, effective Egyptian broomrape control can be achieved by three sequential foliar applications of glyphosate (108 g ae ha−1), beginning during the early parasitism stage (i.e., small tubercles). Moreover, applying glyphosate on carrot at high temperature (i.e., 28/22 C day/night temperatures) can injure carrot plants and reduce control efficacy.

Integrated weed management (IWM) for agronomic and vegetable production systems utilizes all available options to effectively manage weeds. Late-season weed control measures are often needed to improve crop harvest and stop additions to the weed seed bank. Eliminating the production of viable weed seeds is one of the key IWM practices. The objective of this research was to determine how termination method and timing influence viable weed seed production of late-season weed infestations. Research was conducted in Delaware, Michigan, and New York over a 2-yr period. The weeds studied included: common lambsquarters, common ragweed, giant foxtail, jimsonweed, and velvetleaf. Three termination methods were imposed: cutting at the plant base (simulating hand hoeing), chopping (simulating mowing), and applying glyphosate. The three termination timings were flowering, immature seeds present, and mature seeds present. Following termination, plants were stored in the field in mesh bags until mid-Fall when seeds were counted and tested for viability. Termination timing influenced viable seed development; however, termination method did not. Common ragweed and giant foxtail produced viable seeds when terminated at the time of flowering. All species produced some viable seed when immature seeds were present at the time of termination. The time of viable seed formation varied based on species and site-year, ranging from plants terminated the day of flowering to 1,337 growing degree d after flowering (base 10, 0 to 57 calendar d). Viable seed production was reduced by 64 to 100% when common lambsquarters, giant foxtail, jimsonweed, and velvetleaf were terminated with immature seeds present, compared to when plants were terminated with some mature seeds present. Our results suggest that terminating common lambsquarters, common ragweed, and giant foxtail prior to flowering, and velvetleaf and jimsonweed less than 2 and 3 wk after flowering, respectively, greatly reduces weed seed bank inputs.

Weedy rice is one of the most dominant and competitive weed species found throughout rice planting areas worldwide. In Malaysia, a combination of agricultural practices such as direct seeding and shared use of machinery has contributed to the rapid proliferation of weedy rice across paddy fields in recent decades. Here, we report on the morphological characterization of weedy rice populations and inferred origin(s) of different morphotypes present in Peninsular Malaysia. Eight weedy rice morphotypes were distinguished based on a combination of traits such as awn presence/absence and hull color, from 193 accessions collected in 17 locations. Results showed a high proportion of awnless accessions (strawhull-, intermediate strawhull-, and brownhull-colored morphotypes, together composing 65% of sampled accessions), with awned accessions represented by strawhull, brownhull, and blackhull forms. Clustering and PCA analyses revealed four major clusters: (1) O. rufipogon and the majority of awned, blackhull, and brownhull—suggestive of a type of weedy rice originating from wild Oryza populations; (2) elite indica cultivar rice and the majority of strawhull weeds—supporting a previous proposal that weedy rice from Malaysia mainly evolved from indirect selection on cultivars for easy-shattering feral forms; (3) the majority of brownhull; and (4) a mixture of other weedy morphotypes—potentially reflecting multiple origins and subsequent admixture. The combination of key morphological descriptors will be useful for advising farmers appropriately in strategies for controlling the spread of weedy rice, including periodic manual weeding to reduce buildup of the seed bank in the fields.

Coevolving interactions between a plant population and its microbiota can potentially yield a rhizosphere enriched in metagenomes containing the blueprints for a vast array of natural products. We describe a method of isolating those metabolites through activity-based screening of soil metagenomic libraries. The method allows for the isolation of small molecules produced in vector–host expression systems containing large-insert DNA fragments extracted from the target plant rhizospheres. Allelopathic activities derived from selected clones were screened against a series of controls. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMS) showed similar effects of the set of controls on lettuce growth, whereas annual bluegrass had a broader range of growth responses. Methanol extracts from clones indicating activity showed distinct patterns in grass seedling growth from the empty vector control, but the same extracts showed no effect on lettuce. The results indicate that the metagenomics method and bioassay screen of clone extracts are tools that can be used for initial determination of allelopathic activity from noncultured soil microbiota.

A lack of information regarding weed control, relative to conventional systems, has left organic growers largely on their own when devising weed management systems for organic crops. As interest in organic weed management increases, researchers need more information regarding the type and number of weed control practices undertaken on organic farms. A survey of certified organic growers was conducted in five states in the northwest United States to identify organic weed management programs and what grower and farm-operation characteristics were factors in weed management program design. Three types of weed management programs, with varying diversity in weed control practices, were identified. Stepwise binary logistic regression indicated that the likelihood of an organic grower using a more-diverse weed management program increased if the grower engaged in grain production and as the number of crops produced on an organic farm operation in 1 yr increased. The probability of operating a more-diverse weed management program also increased as a grower's education level increased. Organic hectarage operated was positively correlated with weed management program diversity, and with the adoption of cultural controls. Additionally, awareness of weeds as a factor causing yield loss was correlated with increased weed management program diversity. An increased awareness among researchers of the differing needs and abilities of organic growers in managing weeds on their farms will improve communication and outreach efforts when assisting growers with designing organic weed management programs.

The increasing occurrence of herbicide resistance, along with no new herbicide modes of action developed in over 30 yr, have increased the need for nonherbicidal weed management strategies and tactics. Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) practices have been successfully adopted in Australia to manage problematic weeds. For HWSC to be effective, a high proportion of weed seeds must be retained on the plant at crop maturity. This 2-yr (2014, 2015) study evaluated seed shatter of wild oat, green foxtail, wild mustard, and cleavers in both an early (field pea) and late (spring wheat) maturity crop in field experiments at Scott, Saskatchewan. Seed shatter was assessed using shatter trays collected once a week during crop ripening stage, as well as at two crop maturation or harvest stages (swathing, direct-combining). Seed shatter differed among weed species, but was similar between crops at maturity: ca. 30% for wild oat, 5% for cleavers, < 2% for wild mustard, and < 1% for green foxtail. Overall, seed shatter of wild oat occurred sooner and at greater levels during the growing season compared with the other weed species. Viability of both shattered and plant-retained seeds was relatively high for all species. The small amount of seed shatter of cleavers, wild mustard, and green foxtail suggests that these species may be suitable candidates for HWSC. Due to the amount and timing of wild oat seed shatter, HWSC may not reduce population abundance of this grassy weed.

Many Italian ryegrass populations in Oregon are resistant to more than one herbicide; therefore, the resistance patterns of these populations must be determined to identify alternative herbicides for management. Two suspected resistant Italian ryegrass populations (R2 and R4) survived flufenacet plus metribuzin applications under typical winter wheat production conditions. Populations R2 and R4 were resistant to clethodim, pinoxaden, quizalofop, mesosulfuron-methyl, flufenacet, but not to acetochlor, dimethenamid-p, metolachlor, pyroxasulfone, imazapyr, sulfometuron, or glyphosate. R4 was resistant to diuron, but R2 was not. The estimated flufenacet doses required for 50% growth reduction (GR50) were 438 g ai ha−1 (R2) and 308 g ai ha−1 (R4). Both populations were controlled by pyroxasulfone at rates greater than 15 g ai ha−1. An Asp-2078-Gly substitution in the ACCase gene was found in both populations, while an Ile-2041-Asn was found only in the R4 population. A Ser-264-Gly substitution in psbA gene was found in the R4 population. These mutations previously have been reported to provide resistance to ACCase and photosynthetic inhibitors, respectively. No resistance mutations were identified in the acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene of either population. The addition of the P450 inhibitor, chlorpyrifos, increased the injury resulting from mesosulfuron-methyl on both resistant populations providing indirect evidence that the ALS resistance may be metabolic. Multiple herbicide-resistant Italian ryegrass populations were identified in this study with both target site and nontarget site based mechanisms likely involved. However, several herbicides were identified including pyroxasulfone, a herbicide in the same group as flufenacet, which could be used to control these two populations.

Field experiments were conducted to determine the critical period for weed control (CPWC) in nongrafted ‘Amelia’ and Amelia grafted onto ‘Maxifort’ tomato rootstock grown in plasticulture. The establishment treatments (EST) consisted of two seedlings each of common purslane, large crabgrass, and yellow nutsedge transplanted at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 12 wk after tomato transplanting (WAT) and remained until tomato harvest to simulate weeds emerging at different times. The removal treatments (REM) consisted of the same weeds transplanted on the day of tomato transplanting and removed at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 12 WAT to simulate weeds controlled at different times. The beginning and end of the CPWC, based on a 5% yield loss of marketable tomato, was determined by fitting log-logistic and Gompertz models to the relative yield data representing REM and EST, respectively. In both grafted and nongrafted tomato, plant aboveground dry biomass increased as establishment of weeds was delayed and tomato plant biomass decreased when removal of weeds was delayed. For a given time of weed removal and establishment, grafted tomato plants produced higher biomass than nongrafted. The delay in establishment and removal of weeds resulted in weed biomass decrease and increase of the same magnitude, respectively, regardless of transplant type. The predicted CPWC was from 2.2 to 4.5 WAT in grafted tomato and from 3.3 to 5.8 WAT in nongrafted tomato. The length (2.3 or 2.5 wk) of the CPWC in fresh market tomato was not affected by grafting; however, the CPWC management began and ended 1 wk earlier in grafted tomato than in nongrafted tomato.

Switchgrass is a potential feedstock for cellulosic bioenergy production. Weed competition from annual grass during the establishment year can reduce switchgrass establishment and resulting productivity, but the relationship between early season grass densities and outcomes of competition are not well understood. We measured how a range of giant and yellow foxtail densities in the establishment year influenced switchgrass establishment and resulting productivity in the first production year (second year of the growing season). In two of the three site–yr more than four foxtail plants m−2 reduced switchgrass plant densities below documented thresholds of establishment success. A lesser effect of foxtails in the third site–year suggested that higher switchgrass emergence rates reduced foxtail competitive ability during establishment. Effects on yield were consistent over the three site–yr. The yield (10.96 Mg ha−1 ± 0.77) decreased rapidly as foxtail density increased. One foxtail plant m−2 reduced switchgrass yield in the first production year by 25%, and yield loss was 90% or greater at densities > 50 foxtail plants m−2. Although switchgrass can establish in the presence of foxtail competition, these weed species should be controlled to maximize yields in the first production year.

Resistance to glyphosate in hairy fleabane and horseweed is a problem in orchards and vineyards in California. Population genetic analyses suggest that glyphosate resistance evolved multiple times in both species, but it is unknown if resistance to other herbicides is also present. Two approaches of research were undertaken to further evaluate herbicide resistance in Conyza sp. in the perennial crop systems of California. In the initial study, the distribution of Conyza sp. in the Central Valley, using a semistructured field survey, was coupled with evaluation of the presence and level of glyphosate resistance in plants grown from field-collected seed. In a subsequent study, single-seed descendants representing distinct genetic groups were self-pollinated in the greenhouse and these accessions were evaluated for response to glyphosate and paraquat. Conyza sp. were commonly found throughout the Central Valley and glyphosate-resistant individuals were confirmed in all field collections of both species. The level of glyphosate resistance among field collections varied from 5- to 21-fold compared with 50% glyphosate resistance (GR50) of the susceptible, with exception of one region with a GR50 similar to the susceptible. When self-pollinated accessions from different genetic groups were screened, the level of glyphosate resistance, on the basis of GR50 values, ranged from 1.7- to 42.5-fold in hairy fleabane, and 5.9- to 40.3-fold in horseweed. Three accessions of hairy fleabane from different genetic groups were also resistant to paraquat (40.1- to 352.5-fold). One glyphosate-resistant horseweed accession was resistant to paraquat (322.8-fold), which is the first confirmed case in California. All paraquat-resistant accessions of Conyza sp. identified so far have also been resistant to glyphosate, probably because glyphosate resistance is already widespread in the state. Because glyphosate and paraquat resistances are found across a wide geographical range and in accessions from distinct genetic groups, multiple resistant Conyza sp. likely developed independently several times in California.

Italian ryegrass populations investigated in this study were harvested in an alfalfa-based cropping system. In that system, the agronomic practices and chemical weed management, based on the use of aryloxyphenoxy-propionates herbicides (i.e., quizalofop ethyl ester), were optimized to obtain a dual seed–forage production. Five of seven populations tested were confirmed resistant to quizalofop ethyl ester with resistance indexes ranging from 4.5 to >209. Both target- and nontarget-site resistance mechanisms were most likely involved. Three allelic variants were detected (Ile-1781–Leu, Trp-2027–Cys, and Ile-2041–Asn) in four resistant populations, whereas no known mutations were found in one resistant population. The herbicide treatment on Italian ryegrass plants at different phenological stages suggested that to control regrowth, it is necessary to use two to fives times the herbicide dose suitable for younger plants. This situation is encountered in fields when Italian ryegrass plants need to be controlled to maximize the alfalfa seed production, and it is comparable to using a sublethal herbicide dose, leading to the selection of herbicide-resistant biotypes. In such a situation, the cropping system is not sustainable, and integrated weed management should be implemented to deplete the soil weed seed bank and prevent new weed seed production.

The inclusion of competitive crop cultivars in crop rotations is an important integrated weed management (IWM) tool. However, competitiveness is often not considered a priority for breeding or cultivar selection by growers. Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) is often considered a poor competitor with weeds, but it is not known whether competitiveness varies among semileafless cultivars. The objectives of this study were to determine if semileafless field pea cultivars vary in their ability to compete and/or withstand competition, as well as to identify aboveground trait(s) that may be associated with increased competitive ability. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 and 2013 at three locations in western Canada. Fourteen semileafless field pea cultivars were included in the study representing four different market classes. Cultivars were grown either in the presence or absence of model weeds (wheat and canola), and competitive ability of the cultivars was determined based on their ability to withstand competition (AWC) and their ability to compete (AC). Crop yield, weed biomass and weed fecundity varied among sites but not years. Cultivars exhibited inconsistent differences in competitive ability, although cv. Reward consistently exhibited the lowest AC and AWC. None of the traits measured in this study correlated highly with competitive ability. However, the highest-yielding cultivars generally were those that had the highest AC, whereas cultivars that ranked highest for AWC were associated with lower weed fecundity. Ranking the competitive ability of field pea cultivars could be an important IWM tool for growers and agronomists.

Atrazine has been the most widely used herbicide in North American processing sweet corn for decades; however, increased restrictions in recent years have reduced or eliminated atrazine use in certain production areas. The objective of this study was to identify the best stakeholder-derived weed management alternatives to atrazine in processing sweet corn. In field trials throughout the major production areas of processing sweet corn, including three states over 4 yr, 12 atrazine-free weed management treatments were compared to three standard atrazine-containing treatments and a weed-free check. Treatments varied with respect to herbicide mode of action, herbicide application timing, and interrow cultivation. All treatments included a PRE application of dimethenamid. No single weed species occurred across all sites; however, weeds observed in two or more sites included common lambsquarters, giant ragweed, morningglory species, velvetleaf, and wild-proso millet. Standard treatments containing both atrazine and mesotrione POST provided the most efficacious weed control among treatments and resulted in crop yields comparable to the weed-free check, thus demonstrating the value of atrazine in sweet corn production systems. Timely interrow cultivation in atrazine-free treatments did not consistently improve weed control. Only two atrazine-free treatments consistently resulted in weed control and crop yield comparable to standard treatments with atrazine POST: treatments with tembotrione POST either with or without interrow cultivation. Additional atrazine-free treatments with topramezone applied POST worked well in Oregon where small-seeded weed species were prevalent. This work demonstrates that certain atrazine-free weed management systems, based on input from the sweet corn growers and processors who would adopt this technology, are comparable in performance to standard atrazine-containing weed management systems.

The tomato mutant line HRT was obtained by ethyl methanesulfonate seed mutagenesis of the commercial tomato line M82. Greenhouse studies were conducted to determine whole-plant response to the imidazolinone herbicides imazamox, imazapic, and imazapyr; pyrithiobac-sodium (a herbicide from the pyrimidinylthiobenzoic acid group); and propoxycarbazone sodium (sulfonylaminocarbonyltriazolinone group). The mutant was highly resistant to imazamox, imazapic, and imazapyr, but did not differ from M82 in its response to the sulfonylurea herbicides Envoke (trifloxysulfuron), Monitor (sulfosulfuron), and Glean (chlorsulfuron). Equip (foramsulfuron), a sulfonylurea herbicide, was toxic to M82 but less so to HRT plants. Under field conditions, HRT showed high resistance to imazapic and imazapyr. The herbicides at a rate of 144 g ai ha−1 did not cause any reduction in HRT plant vigor, development, or yield. Results of greenhouse and field experiments demonstrated high Egyptian broomrape–control efficacy with the imidazolinone herbicides imazapic and imazapyr. Two imazapic applications of 9.6 or 14.4 g ai ha−1 and three applications of 4.8 g ai ha−1 in pot experiments completely prevented appearance of broomrape shoots aboveground. Three and four applications of the same herbicides in the field at a rate of 12 or 24 g ai ha−1 completely prevented shoot appearance without any yield losses. Single imazapic application as high as 144 g ai ha−1 did not damage the plants or reduce HRT yield.

Japanese foxtail is a predominant tetraploid grass weed in wheat and oilseed rape fields in eastern China. In China, pyroxsulam is mainly used to manage annual grass weeds, especially those resistant to acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase)-inhibiting herbicides. Using dose–response studies, a pyroxsulam-resistant population, ACTC-1, was identified with a resistance index value of 58. Additionally, ACTC-1 was cross-resistant to sulfonylureas, imidazolinones, triazolopyrimidines, pyrimidinyl-benzoates, and sulfonylaminocarbonyl-triazolinones and multiresistant to ACCase and photosystem II inhibitors. Sequence analysis revealed four gene fragments encoding acetolactate synthase (ALS) from ACTC-1, and three from JNXW-1, a pyroxsulam-sensitive population. An Asp-376-Glu substitution was found in ALS1;2 and an Ile-2041-Asn in Acc1;1, which may be responsible for its resistance to pyroxsulam and ACCase inhibitors, respectively. In vitro assays of ALS activity revealed that in ACTC-1, the sensitivity of ALS to pyroxsulam was lower, and the basal ALS activity was twofold higher than that of sensitive population JNXW-1. Additionally, the combined application of pyroxsulam with malathion or piperonyl butoxide increased the sensitivity of ACTC-1 to pyroxsulam, although it could not completely overcome the resistance. It was inferred that both target-site-based resistance and nontarget-site-based resistance may be involved in the resistance to pyroxsulam.

Halosulfuron-methyl, a sulfonylurea herbicide, was registered for broadleaf weed control in dry bean. This herbicide has an adequate margin of crop safety in white bean, but causes unacceptable injury to adzuki bean. Halosulfuron-methyl absorption, translocation, and metabolism were evaluated in white and adzuki bean using radiolabeled herbicide to determine if differences in these parameters could explain the difference in crop safety between these two species. Adzuki bean had more rapid halosulfuron-methyl absorption than white bean. Adzuki bean reached 90% absorption (t90) 26.2 h after treatment (HAT), whereas white bean required 40.1 HAT to reach t90. The maximum halosulfuron-methyl absorption was higher in adzuki bean (75.7%) than in white bean (65.3%). More 14C-halosulfuron was translocated to the apex, first trifoliate, stem above the treated leaf, and roots in aduzki bean than in white bean. The maximum radioactivity translocated out of treated leaf was higher in adzuki bean (17.7%) than in white bean (12.1%). Halosulfuron-methyl was broken down to the same metabolites in white and adzuki bean. The half-life of halosulfuron-methyl in adzuki bean was 16 HAT, compared with less than 6 HAT in white bean. More herbicide remained as the free acid in adzuki bean compared with white bean over the entire 48-h time course. The differential tolerance of white and adzuki bean to halosulfuron can be attributed to greater absorption and translocation and decreased metabolism in adzuki bean.

The few available herbicides for fresh market spinach do not provide adequate weed control, and there is need for additional herbicide tools. Phenmedipham is registered for use in processing spinach but not in fresh spinach, because of potential injury and the short interval between application and spinach harvest. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the tolerance level of fresh spinach varieties to phenmedipham and evaluate the impact of light intensity on tolerance of spinach to phenmedipham. In the greenhouse, nine spinach varieties were treated with phenmedipham (0.55 kg ai ha−1). Spinach varieties exhibited a wide range of tolerance, and dry weights of treated plants ranged from 40 to 78% compared to the nontreated control. Based on the phenmedipham tolerance screen, two varieties with low (Nordic) and high (Regal) tolerance to phenmedipham were treated, then exposed to half (shaded) and full (nonshaded) sunlight. Nonshaded Nordic treated with phenmedipham had 65% lower dry weight compared to similarly treated plants grown under shade, suggesting that spinach tolerance to phenmedipham was mainly affected by light intensity. Measurements of electron transfer intensity in photosystem II also showed tolerance to phenmedipham that varied among spinach varieties and light intensity. The maximum values of electron transfer in photosystem II of Regal treated with phenmedipham were higher than those of similarly treated Nordic. In the field, phenmedipham was applied under varied light and temperature conditions. The impact of light intensity on yield of treated spinach was greater than the impact of temperature. Phenmedipham applied under high light conditions was more injurious than when applied under low light conditions. Results from this study can contribute to successful integration of phenmedipham into currently used fresh spinach weed management, which in turn can allow more efficient production of this crop.