Transfer of herbicide resistance among closely related weed species is a topic of growing concern. A spiny amaranth × Palmer amaranth hybrid was confirmed resistant to several acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors including imazethapyr, nicosulfuron, pyrithiobac, and trifloxysulfuron. Enzyme assays indicated that the ALS enzyme was insensitive to pyrithiobac and sequencing revealed the presence of a known resistance conferring point mutation, Trp574Leu. Alignment of the ALS gene for Palmer amaranth, spiny amaranth, and putative hybrids revealed the presence of Palmer amaranth ALS sequence in the hybrids rather than spiny amaranth ALS sequences. In addition, sequence upstream of the ALS in the hybrids matched Palmer amaranth and not spiny amaranth. The potential for transfer of ALS inhibitor resistance by hybridization has been demonstrated in the greenhouse and in field experiments. This is the first report of gene transfer for ALS inhibitor resistance documented to occur in the field without artificial/human intervention. These results highlight the need to control related species in both field and surrounding noncrop areas to avoid interspecific transfer of resistance genes.

Herbicide-resistant weeds are the result of evolutionary processes that make it easy to think about the problem from a purely biological perspective. Yet, the act of weed management, guided by human production of food and fiber, drives this biological process. Thus, the problem is socioeconomic as well as biological. The purpose of this article is to explain how well-known socioeconomic phenomena create barriers to herbicide-resistance management and highlight important considerations for knocking down these barriers. The key message is that the multidimensional problem requires a multifaceted approach that recognizes differences among farmers; engages the regulatory, academic, extension, seed and chemical suppliers, and farmer communities; and aligns the diverse interests of the members of these communities with a common goal that benefits all—more sustainable weed management. It also requires an adaptive approach that transitions from moreuniform and costly standards and incentives, which can be effective in the near-term but are unsustainable, to more-targeted and less-costly approaches that are sustainable in the long term.

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors are widely used for POST control of sedges in turfgrass. A suspected resistant (R) biotype of annual sedge was collected from a bermudagrass turf in Georgia with a history of exclusive use of halosulfuron. Research was conducted to evaluate the resistance level of this biotype to halosulfuron, efficacy of ALS-inhibiting herbicides and other mechanisms of action for control, and the molecular and physiological basis for resistance. In greenhouse experiments, the halosulfuron rate required to reduce shoot biomass 50% in comparison with the nontreated at 8 wk after treatment (WAT) were 8 and > 1,120 g ai ha−1 for the S (susceptible) and R biotypes, respectively. Imazapic, sulfosulfuron, and trifloxysulfuron reduced biomass of the S biotype greater than 60% at 8 WAT, but biomass was reduced less than 20% for the R biotype. Glufosinate, glyphosate, MSMA, and sulfentrazone reduced shoot biomass of the R biotype by 93, 86, 97, and 45%, respectively. In laboratory experiments, the halosulfuron concentration required to inhibit ALS activity by 50% in excised leaf tissues was 5.8 and > 1,000 μM for the S and R biotypes, respectively. Gene sequencing of the R biotype revealed a Pro-197-Ser substitution that confers resistance to ALS inhibitors. This is the first report of ALS-inhibitor resistance in annual sedge and herbicide resistance in a sedge species from a turfgrass system.

A population of junglerice from Sunflower County, MS, exhibited resistance to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. An 11-fold difference in ED50 (the effective dose needed to reduce growth by 50%) values was observed when comparing the resistant population (249 g ae ha–1) with susceptible plants (20 g ae ha–1) collected from a different field. The resistant population was controlled by clethodim and sethoxydim at the field rate. Sequencing of the acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase, which encodes the enzyme targeted by fenoxaprop-P-ethyl, did not reveal the presence of any known resistance-conferring point mutations. An enzyme assay confirmed that the acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase in the resistant population is herbicide sensitive. Further investigations with two cytochrome P450 inhibitors, malathion and piperonyl butoxide, and a glutathione-S-transferase inhibitor, 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan, did not indicate involvement of any metabolic enzymes inhibited by these compounds. The absence of a known target-site point mutation and the sensitivity of the ACCase enzyme to herbicide show that fenoxaprop-P-ethyl resistance in this population is due to a non–target-site mechanism or mechanisms.

Common teasel is an invasive and widespread weed in Argentina. Germination experiments were carried out from 2011 to 2014 to determine the effect of various environmental factors on germination and emergence. Germination of recently dispersed seeds was 12% in darkness at constant temperature. In contrast, seed exposure to light and alternating temperatures enhanced germination to 95%. The requirement of light and alternating temperatures suggest that common teasel has physiological dormancy. Several experiments were carried out to determine whether (1) seed responses to light and alternating temperatures have a hormonal basis, (2) seed coats can suppress germination, and (3) time and thermal conditions during seed storage reduce light and alternating temperature requirements. Germination was reduced (≤ 13%) by a gibberellin synthesis inhibitor. In contrast, the presence of gibberellins and an abscisic acid synthesis inhibitor increased germination to 95 and 38%, respectively. Results suggest that a higher ratio among gibberellins and abscisic acid (GA/ABA) leads to a break in dormancy. Germination was 100% when embryos were excised, suggesting that seed coats may suppress germination by mechanical restriction. Likewise, germination was enhanced by hydrogen peroxide (70%). This compound is known to increase GA/ABA ratio in agreement with a hormonal control of dormancy proposed for common teasel. An increment of storage time reduces light and alternating temperature requirements, allowing seeds to germinate in darkness. Taking these results together confirms that common teasel has physiological dormancy. Seedling emergence was progressively reduced from 70 to 8% by increased burial depth from 0 to 3 cm. Information from these experiments may facilitate development of effective management for common teasel.

A bioeconomic model is used to estimate how managing glyphosate resistance to horseweed affects short- and long-run profits in corn, soybean, and corn-soybean rotation systems. Model results found that resistance management reduces profits in the first year of implementation, but increases profits in the second and subsequent 18 yr. In all three systems, long run gains begin to outweigh short-run costs (and resistance management “pays for itself”) by the second year. Over a 20-yr horizon, the estimated annual average profit advantage from managing resistance exceeded $158 ha–1 ($64/acre) for corn, $137 ha–1 ($55/acre) for corn-soybean, and $55 ha–1 ($22/acre) for soybean. Seed immigration from a neighbor's field can reduce these gains, but this reduction is negligible if the neighbor also practices resistance management. If the neighbor did not manage resistance, however, the grower's estimated annual profit advantage fell to roughly $123 ha–1 ($50/acre) for corn, $60 ha–1 ($24/acre) for the corn-soybean rotation, and virtually zero for soybean. Methods applied in this study identify corn and corn-soybean rotations as cases where resistance management “pays for itself' quickly and significantly, even if the neighbor does not manage resistance. Continuous soybean presents a more challenging case that may require additional programs and incentives to encourage collective resistance management among growers. Even for continuous soybean, however, joint grower–neighbor resistance management can pay for itself within 2 yr.

This research investigated the temperature and light requirements for seed germination and emergence patterns of pinnate poppy, violet horned-poppy, and nodding hypecoum, three annual Papaveraceae species found in arable lands in the Mediterranean region. Two experiments performed in growth chambers (1) analyzed light (complete darkness or 12 h light) and temperature (10/5, 15/5, and 20/10 C day/night temperatures) requirements for germination, and (2) determined base temperature (Tb) for germination. An outdoor pot trial was also set up to study emergence patterns. All species showed higher germination in complete darkness than they did with a light regime, irrespective of dormancy level, time of the year, and temperature regime under which germination was tested, illustrating better germination when seeds are buried. Tb ranged from −2.6 to 0 C, depending on the species, indicating low temperature requirements for germination. Given their higher germination in daily fluctuating, rather than constant temperatures, the three Papaveraceae species should have the capacity to form persistent seed banks. These species behaved as winter annuals (from November to February) in the pot experiment and had difficulties to emerge in spring. Given that they cannot avoid autumn–winter chemical treatments, this could partially explain their regression in arable fields. These results bring new information to develop management strategies for these Papaveraceae species in agroecosystems.

Common waterhemp is one of the most commonly encountered and troublesome weeds in the midwestern United States. It is well known that water stress adversely affects crop growth and yield; however, the effects of water stress on weed growth and seed production are poorly understood. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of degree and duration of water stress on growth, development, and fecundity of two common waterhemp biotypes in greenhouse experiments conducted at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. No difference was observed in growth, development, and seed production between two biotypes in response to degree and duration of water stress; therefore, data were combined. The degree of water stress study included five treatments, where the amount of water applied to each pot at 2-d interval was equivalent to 100, 75, 50, 25, and 12.5% of pot (soil) water content. The highest plant height (163 cm), number of leaves (231 plant−1), and growth index (4.4 × 105 cm3) were recorded at 100% of pot water content (no water stress). Similarly, aboveground biomass, total leaf area, and seed production reached their maximum at 100% of pot water content treatment, whereas they were reduced as degree of water stress increased. The study of water stress duration included five treatments, where amount of water applied to each pot at 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-d intervals was equivalent to 100% of pot water content. The highest plant height (150 cm), number of leaves (210 plant−1), and growth index (3.8 × 105 cm3) were observed at 2-d interval of water stress, whereas seed production was similar at 2-d (36,549 seeds plant−1) and 4-d (34,176 seeds plant−1) intervals. This study shows that common waterhemp has capacity to survive and reproduce even under a higher degree and duration of water stress.

The supply of soil resources is critical for the establishment and long-term competitive success of a plant species. Although there is considerable research on the effects of water supply on crop growth and productivity, there is little published research on the comparative response of crops and weeds to limiting soil water supply. The objective of this research was to determine the growth and transpiration efficiency of corn and velvetleaf at three levels of water supply. One corn or velvetleaf plant was grown in a large pot lined with plastic bags. When seedlings reached 10 cm, bags were sealed around the base of the plant, so the only water loss was from transpiration. Daily transpiration was measured by weighing the pots at the same time each day. The experiment was conducted in the fall of 2007 and in the spring of 2008. Four replicates of each species–water treatment were harvested periodically to determine biomass accumulation and leaf area. The relationship between cumulative aboveground biomass and water transpired was described using a linear function in which the slope defined the transpiration efficiency (TE). Corn TE was greater than velvetleaf TE in all treatments during both trials. In the fall trial, corn TE was 6.3 g kg–1, 47% greater than that of velvetleaf TE. In the spring trial, TEs of both species were lower overall, and corn TE increased with declining water supply. Corn produced more biomass and leaf area than velvetleaf did at all water-supply levels. Velvetleaf partitioned more biomass to roots compared with shoots during early growth than corn did. The ability of corn to generate more leaf area and its investment in a greater proportion of biomass into root growth at all levels of water supply may enable it to more-effectively avoid velvetleaf interference under all levels of soil-water supply.

Rice vampireweed belongs to the Orobanchaceae and is found in Africa and Australia. It is a hemiparasitic weed of lowland rice genotypes and causes losses of 40 to 100% of rice grain yield. Our study addressed the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed in Benin and Senegal. The specific objectives of this research were to study the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed accessions in Benin and Senegal and the relationship between the different genotypes of rice vampireweed through agroecological areas. To achieve these objectives, the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed accessions using the AFLP technique was studied. Based on our results, dendrogram classification has distinguished four different genetic groups. The populations of Benin and Senegal are genetically diverse. Substantial genetic differentiation (GST) exists among agroecological areas within Benin and Senegal (GST = 0.17). The high genetic diversity of rice vampireweed in Benin and Senegal presents a challenge for the development of resistant rice germplasm.

Weed suppression is one possible benefit of including cover crops in crop rotations. The late spring planting date of dry beans allows for more growth of cover crops in the spring. We assessed the influence of cover crops on weed dynamics in organic dry beans and weed seed persistence. Medium red clover, oilseed radish, and cereal rye were planted the year before dry beans; a no-cover-crop control was also included. After cover-crop incorporation, common lambsquarters, giant foxtail, and velvetleaf seeds were buried in the red clover, cereal rye, and no-cover control treatments and then retrieved 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 12 mo after cover-crop incorporation. Dry beans were planted in June and weed emergence and biomass measured. Eleven or more site-years of data were collected for each cover-crop treatment between 2011 and 2013, allowing for structural equation modeling (SEM), in addition to traditional analyses. Cereal rye residue increased giant foxtail and velvetleaf seed persistence by up to 12%; red clover decreased common lambsquarters seed persistence by 22% in 1 of 2 yr relative to the no-cover-crop control. Oilseed radish and incorporated cereal rye rarely reduced weed densities. When red clover biomass exceeded 5 Mg ha−1, soil inorganic N was often higher (5 of 6 site-years), as were weed density and biomass (5 and 4 of 12 main site sample times, respectively). Using SEM, we identified one causal relationship between cover-crop N content and weed biomass at the first flower stage (R1), as mediated through soil N at the time of dry bean planting and at the stage with two fully expanded trifoliates. Increasing cover-crop C : N ratios directly reduced weed biomass at R1, not mediated through changes in soil N. Cover crops that make a significant contribution to soil N may also stimulate weed emergence and growth.

Laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the effect of several environmental factors on seed germination of feather fingergrass, one of the most significant emerging weeds in warm regions of the world. Seed germination occurred over a broad range of temperatures (17/7, 25/10, and 30/20 C), but germination being highest at alternating temperatures of 30/20 C under both 12 h light/12 h dark and 24 h dark conditions. Although seed germination was favored by light, some seeds were capable of germinating in the dark. Increasing salt stress decreased seed germination until complete inhibition was reached at 250-mM sodium chloride. Germination decreased from 64 to 0.7% as osmotic potential decreased from 0 to −0.4 MPa, and was completely inhibited at −0.6 MPa. Higher seed germination (> 73%) was observed in the range of pH 6.4 to 8 than the other tested pH levels. Heat shock had a significant effect on seed germination. Germination of seeds placed at 130 C for 5 min was completely inhibited for both dry and presoaked seeds. The results of this study will help to develop protocols for managing feather fingergrass, and to thus avoid its establishment as a troublesome weed in economically important cropping regions.

When herbicide-resistant weeds are highly mobile across farms, delaying resistance becomes a common-pool resource (CPR) problem. In such situations, it is in the collective long-term interest of farmers to conserve an herbicide's usefulness. Yet, each farmer has an individual short-run incentive to use the herbicide without considering effects on resistance. This study considers the potential for community-based (CB) approaches to address problems of herbicide-resistant weeds. Here, growers actively participate in designing, financing, and implementing programs, usually in collaboration with industry, government, and universities. CB approaches have certain advantages over top-down regulatory or subsidy-based approaches. Scholars and practitioners have developed effective governance mechanisms for many CPRs that could aid in developing effective resistance management programs. Successful CB management programs for insect pest eradication and areawide invasive weed control offer additional lessons about the potential and challenges of such efforts. Lessons from these examples can inform the design and implementation of successful, voluntary programs for herbicide-resistance management. Key research, education, and outreach priorities to help implement successful CB programs are identified at the close.

Echinochloa species are among the most troublesome weeds in rice cultivation, and grow in a broad habitat range in Korea. Although various ecotypes of Echinochloa have been collected as germplasm for future studies, it has been difficult to classify them due to their high level of morphological similarity. This study was thus conducted to develop and investigate the phylogenetic relationships between 77 Echinochloa accessions with the use of 23 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and 24 morphological traits. Of 77 Echinochloa accessions, including 57 accessions from Korea and 5 reference species, late watergrass was clearly clustered as a distinctive group from barnyardgrass and other Echinochloa species. In this analysis, we also identified core genetic and morphological markers that can be used for the future identification and classification of Echinochloa species. Five out of 23 SSR makers produced distinctive bands that discriminate late watergrass from barnyardgrass and other Echinochloa species. Four morphological traits of the reproductive organs were the most influential contributors for classifying Echinochloa species. Although there was no clear consensus generated in this study between SSR markers and morphological trait analyses, our results support the potential use of the selected SSR markers and morphological traits in future studies of Echinochloa.

The members of the genus Cuscuta (common name: dodder) are obligate holoparasitic plants that are found throughout the agricultural regions of the world. Of all of the species of dodder, field dodder (Cuscuta campestris) causes the most damage to crops. This species parasitizes the shoots of broadleaf plant crops and weeds. We conducted a series of field dodder seed germination tests in controlled-temperature chambers, in order to describe the effect of temperature on field dodder germination and develop a germination model based on the obtained data. The best fit was obtained when temperature data and time were transformed to thermal time using the beta-function model. The field dodder germination model can serve as a tool for knowledge-based predictions of germination and emergence timing, to allow for the implementation of effective mechanical and chemical management measures.

The anatomy and pollination of subterranean cleistogamous flowers of Benghal dayflower (Commelina benghalensis) is described as a contribution to understanding its reproductive biology. Subterranean stems bear one spathe per node, each enclosing a single cleistogamous flower. Only the three anterior stamens produce functional pollen; the posterior three stamens are staminodes. Tapetum is amoeboid and endothecium is present. The three-carpellate superior ovary bears five dimorphic orthotropous ovules. Nearly mature flowers have straight to somewhat curved styles; at maturity, styles elongate and coil. Our observations indicate that coiled style growth causes rupture of anthers and brings pollen into contact with stigmas. Pollen tubes were observed in styles that had previously undergone coiling, located within mucilaginous secretions of the mature stylar canal. The subterranean cleistogamous flowers of Benghal dayflower and their apparently unique mode of pollination, viewed together with reproductive capacity of its aerial chasmogamous flowers, underscore the complexity and flexibility of the reproductive biology of this noxious weed species.

Although the problem of herbicide resistance is not new, the widespread evolution of glyphosate resistance in weed species such as Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats.), common waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis Sauer), and kochia [Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad.] raised awareness throughout the agricultural community of herbicide resistance as a problem. Glyphosate-resistant weeds resulted in the loss of a simple, single herbicide option to control a wide spectrum of weeds that gave efficacious and economical weed management in corn (Zea mays L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crops engineered for tolerance to this herbicide and planted over widespread areas of the South and Midwest of the United States. Beyond these crops, glyphosate is used for vegetation management in other cropping systems and in noncrop areas across the United States, and resistance to this herbicide threatens its continued utility in all of these situations. This, combined with the development of multiple herbicide-resistant weeds and the lack of commercialization of herbicides with new mechanisms of action over the past years (Duke 2012), caused the weed science community to realize that stewardship of existing herbicide resources, extending their useful life as long as possible, is imperative. Further, while additional herbicide tolerance traits are being incorporated into crops, weed management in these crops will still be based upon using existing, old, herbicide chemistries.

Studies suggest that disturbance-induced reductions in soil seedbank density are diminished by periods of water scarcity after soil disturbance; however, this hypothesis has yet to be tested. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the effects of increasing time between soil disturbance and flood irrigation on disturbance-induced reductions in soil seedbank density, and (2) to identify specific soil moisture levels that cause seedbank reductions under flood irrigation. Weed species in this study were junglerice, Palmer amaranth, and yellow foxtail. For Objective 1, artificial seedbanks with known numbers of seeds were disturbed 10, 3, or 0 d prior to flood irrigations under field conditions. For Objective 2, seeds were buried in soil mesocosms that were hydrated to specific soil water potentials (flooded, 0 kPa, −30 kPa, −60 kPa, and −180 kPa) and placed in laboratory conditions favorable for germination. For both objectives, seeds were recovered to determine the percentages of buried seeds that survived the disturbance or moisture treatments. Results for the field study indicated that soil disturbances reduced seedbank persistence of Palmer amaranth but did not affect seedbank persistence of junglerice and yellow foxtail. Disturbance-induced reductions in seedbank density were greatest when soil was disturbed 0 and 3 d prior to flood irrigations. For the laboratory study, results showed that waterlogged soil was not required for seedbank losses because rates of seedbank persistence were greater in saturated soils (0 kPa and flooded) compared to the lower moisture levels. These studies indicate that delays in irrigation can reduce the seedbank reduction potentials of soil disturbance events. Further, irrigation timing effects on disturbed soil seedbanks are likely to occur in all irrigation systems, including those that reduce the amount of water applied compared to flood irrigation.

Two species of invasive goldenrods, Solidago canadensis and Solidago gigantea, are spread over all territories of Lithuania. Solidago × niederederi, a putative hybrid between S. canadensis and native Solidago virgaurea, was found in 27 populations mixed with the parental species. This research represents the characterization of S. × niederederi in comparison to the other mentioned Solidago species, with the use of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal-components analysis (PCA), and discriminant analysis of a large data set. Twenty quantitative, four qualitative, and five ratio morphological and anatomical characteristics, pollen viability, and somatic chromosome numbers of the four Solidago species were studied with the aim to ascertain inter- and intraspecific variation and reliable features identifying S. × niederederi, and to test the hypothesized hybrid origin. The PCA of morphological and anatomical characteristics showed the clear intermediate position of S. × niederederi compared to S. canadensis and S. virgaurea. The results showed that the most informative characteristics for the distinction of hybrids from parental species are floral traits such as the lengths of the disc, ray florets, and involucre. The intermediate stomatal characteristics and sharply decreased pollen viability discovered herein could potentially be used as an additional discriminating character in Solidago hybrid identification and support the hybrid origin of S. × niederederi.

Palmer amaranth is a highly invasive weed species causing huge economic losses in agricultural cropping systems under a broad range of environmental conditions. Sensitivity of this species to ozone (O3) air pollution and to soil water deficit, relative to native species or competing crops, may affect its competitiveness and invasive potential. In recent years, both high tropospheric O3 and soil water deficiency have become common in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Responses to these environmental parameters may help predict the invasiveness of this species and have implications for landscape hydrology. We assessed the impact of O3 and soil water deficit on Palmer amaranth. Five- to seven-leaf–stage potted plants were placed in continuous stirred tank reactor chambers and maintained for 30 to 35 d under 12-h mean daylight O3 exposures (0700–1900 hours) of 4, 59, or 114 ppb O3. Within the chambers the plants were either well-watered (WW) or exposed to regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and grown for about 7 wk. Dry weights of the leaves, stems, roots, and leaf area were determined. Day- and nighttime stomatal conductances (gs) were measured at 1.5-h intervals. Nocturnal gs was about 16 to 29% of daytime gs; this suggests that the species could have substantial nighttime water loss, uncoupled from carbon gain in the weed, and could affect water availability for crops and reduce irrigation efficiency. Nocturnal gs was lower in the RDI than in the WW, but daytime gs was not affected by O3 or irrigation regime. Neither O3 nor irrigation regime affected root or shoot parameters. As O3 and drought are two key stressors in the San Joaquin Valley, to which potential competing species have been found to be sensitive, Palmer amaranth may proliferate and become more invasive in the future, potentially altering landscape hydrology and reducing irrigation efficiency.