Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T15:14:44.734Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The squirrel as a rodent model of the human visual system

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 October 2006

STEPHEN D. VAN HOOSER  and
SACHA B. NELSON
STEPHEN D. VAN HOOSER
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts
SACHA B. NELSON
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over the last 50 years, studies of receptive fields in the early mammalian visual system have identified many classes of response properties in brain areas such as retina, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), and primary visual cortex (V1). Recently, there has been significant interest in understanding the cellular and network mechanisms that underlie these visual responses and their functional architecture. Small mammals like rodents offer many advantages for such studies, because they are appropriate for a wide variety of experimental techniques. However, the traditional rodent models, mice and rats, do not rely heavily on vision and have small visual brain areas. Squirrels are highly visual rodents that may be excellent model preparations for understanding mechanisms of function and disease in the human visual system. They use vision for navigating in their environment, predator avoidance, and foraging for food. Visual brain areas such as LGN, V1, superior colliculus, and pulvinar are particularly large and well elaborated in the squirrel, and the squirrel has several extrastriate cortical areas lateral to V1. Unlike many mammals, most squirrel species are diurnal with cone-dominated retinas, similar to the primate fovea, and have excellent dichromatic color vision that is mediated by green and blue cones. Owing to their larger size, squirrels are physiologically more robust than mice and rats under anesthesia, and some hibernating species are particularly tolerant of hypoxia that occurs during procedures such as brain slicing. Finally, many basic anatomical and physiological properties in the early visual system of squirrel have now been described, permitting investigations of cellular mechanisms. In this article, we review four decades of anatomical, behavioral, and physiological studies in squirrel and make comparisons with other species.

Keywords

RodentVisual cortexLateral geniculate nucleusRetinaVision
Type
Research Article
Information
Visual Neuroscience , Volume 23 , Issue 5 , September 2006 , pp. 765 - 778
Copyright
2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abplanalp, P. (1970). Some subcortical connections of the visual system in tree shrews and squirrels. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 3, 155–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, D.L. & Horton, J.C. (2003). Capricious expression of cortical columns in the primate brain. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 6, 113–114.Google Scholar
Adler, B. (1996). Outwitting squirrels: 101 cunning stratagems to reduce dramatically the egregious misappropriation of seed from your birdfeeder by squirrels. Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press, Inc.
Agmon, A. & Connors, B.W. (1991). Thalamocortical responses of mouse somatosensory (barrel) cortex in vitro. Neuroscience 41, 365–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arenz, C.L. & Leger, D.W. (1999). Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Sciuridae: Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) Antipredator vigilance: Monitoring the sky for aerial predators. Ethology 105, 807–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J.F., Petersen, S.E., Newsome, W.T., & Allman, J.M. (1981). Visual response properties of neurons in four extrastriate visual areas of the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus): A quantitative comparison of medial, dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and middle temporal areas. Journal of Neurophysiology 45, 397–416.Google Scholar
Birch, D. & Jacobs, G.H. (1979). Spatial contrast sensitivity in albino and pigmented rats. Vision Research 19, 933–937.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, R., Cool, S.J., & Crawford, M.L. (1974). Visual resolution in the cat. Vision Research 14, 1211–1217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blakeslee, B., Jacobs, G.H., & McCourt, M.E. (1985). Anisotropy in the preferred directions and visual field location of directionally-selective optic nerve fibers in the gray squirrel. Vision Research 25, 615–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blakeslee, B., Jacobs, G.H., & Neitz, J. (1988). Spectral mechanisms in the tree squirrel retina. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 162, 773–780.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blasdel, G.G. & Salama, G. (1986). Voltage-sensitive dyes reveal a modular organization in monkey striate cortex. Nature 321, 579–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosking, W.H., Zhang, Y., Schofield, B., & Fitzpatrick, D. (1997). Orientation selectivity and the arrangement of horizontal connections in tree shrew striate cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 17, 2112–2127.Google Scholar
Bullier, J. & Norton, T.T. (1979). Comparison of receptive-field properties of X and Y ganglion cells with X and Y lateral geniculate cells in the cat. Journal of Neurophysiology 42, 274–291.Google Scholar
Casagrande, V.A. & Diamond, I.T. (1974). Ablation study of the superior colliculus in the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 156, 207–237.Google Scholar
Casagrande, V.A. & Norton, T.T. (1991). Lateral geniculate nucleus: A review of its physiology and function. In The Neural Basis of Visual Function, ed. Leventhal, A.G., pp. 41–84. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Press.
Chapman, B. & Stryker, M.P. (1993). Development of orientation selectivity in ferret visual cortex and effects of deprivation. Journal of Neuroscience 13, 5251–5262.Google Scholar
Chisum, H.J., Mooser, F., & Fitzpatrick, D. (2003). Emergent properties of layer 2/3 neurons reflect the collinear arrangement of horizontal connections in tree shrew visual cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 23, 2947–2960.Google Scholar
Clarke, P.G., Donaldson, I.M., & Whitteridge, D. (1976). Binocular visual mechanisms in cortical areas I and II of the sheep. Journal of Physiology 256, 509–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, P.G. & Whitteridge, D. (1976). The cortical visual areas of the sheep. Journal of Physiology 256, 497–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleland, B.G., Dubin, M.W., & Levick, W.R. (1971). Sustained and transient neurones in the cat's retina and lateral geniculate nucleus. Journal of Physiology 217, 473–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crewther, D.P., Crewther, S.G., & Sanderson, K.J. (1984). Primary visual cortex in the brushtailed possum: Receptive field properties and corticocortical connections. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 24, 184–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuenca, N.Deng, P.Linberg, K.A., Fisher, S.K., & Kolb, H. (2003). Choline acetyltransferase is expressed by non-starburst amacrine cells in the ground squirrel retina. Brain Research 964, 21–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuenca, N., Deng, P., Linberg, K.A., Lewis, G.P., Fisher, S.K., & Kolb, H. (2002). The neurons of the ground squirrel retina as revealed by immunostains for calcium binding proteins and neurotransmitters. Journal of Neurocytology 31, 649–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cusick, C.G. & Kaas, J.H. (1982). Retinal projections in adult and newborn grey squirrels. Brain Research 256, 275–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeBruyn, E.J., Wise, V.L., & Casagrande, V.A. (1980). The size and topographic arrangement of retinal ganglion cells in the galago. Vision Research 20, 315–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dec, K. & Harutiunian-Kozak, B. (1972). Columnar organization of visually driven neurons in the superior colliculus of the cat. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis (Wars) 32, 35–42.Google Scholar
DeValois, R.L., Morgan, H., & Snodderly, D.M. (1974). Psychophysical studies of monkey vision: III. Spatial luminance contrast sensitivity tests of macaque and human observers. Vision Research 14, 75–81.Google Scholar
DeVries, S.H. (2000). Bipolar cells use kainate and AMPA receptors to filter visual information into separate channels. Neuron 28, 847–856.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeVries, S.H., Qi, X., Smith, R., Makous, W., & Sterling, P. (2002). Electrical coupling between mammalian cones. Current Biology 12, 1900–1907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeVries, S.H. & Schwartz, E.A. (1999). Kainate receptors mediate synaptic transmission between cones and “Off” bipolar cells in a mammalian retina. Nature 397, 157–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, I.T. (1976). Organization of the visual cortex: Comparative anatomical and behavioral studies. Federation Proceedings 35, 60–67.Google Scholar
Dräger, U.C. (1974). Autoradiography of tritiated proline and fucose transported transneuronally from the eye to the visual cortex in pigmented and albino mice. Brain Research 82, 284–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dräger, U.C. & Olsen, J.F. (1981). Ganglion cell distribution in the retina of the mouse. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 20, 285–293.Google Scholar
Duncan, R.D. & Jenkins, S.H. (1998). Use of visual cues in foraging by a diurnal herbivore, Belding's ground squirrel. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 76, 1766–1770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enroth-Cugell, C. & Robson, J.G. (1966). Contrast sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells of cat. Journal of Physiology 187, 517–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fagiolini, M., Fritschy, J.M., Low, K., Mohler, H., Rudolph, U., & Hensch, T.K. (2004). Specific GABAA circuits for visual cortical plasticity. Science 303, 1681–1683.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, S.K., Lewis, G.P., Linberg, K.A., & Verardo, M.R. (2005). Cellular remodeling in mammalian retina: Results from studies of experimental retinal detachment. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 24, 395–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitch, H.S. (1948). Ecology of the California ground squirrel on grazing lands. American Midland Naturalist 39, 513–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukuda, Y. (1977). A three-group classification of rat retinal ganglion cells: Histological and physiological studies. Brain Research 119, 327–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukuda, Y., Takatsuji, K., Sawai, H., Wakakuwa, K., Watanabe, M., & Mitani-Yamanishi, Y. (1986). Ipsilateral retinal projections and laminations of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus in the eastern chipmunk (Tamias sibiricus asiaticus). Brain Research 384, 373–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giolli, R.A. & Guthrie, M.D. (1969). The primary optic projections in the rabbit. An experimental degeneration study. Journal of Comparative Neurology 136, 99–126.Google Scholar
Girman, S.V., Sauve, Y., & Lund, R.D. (1999). Receptive field properties of single neurons in rat primary visual cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology 82, 301–311.Google Scholar
Godement, P., Saillour, P., & Imbert, M. (1980). The ipsilateral optic pathway to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and superior colliculus in mice with prenatal or postnatal loss of one eye. Journal of Comparative Neurology 190, 611–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, J.A. & Stryker, M.P. (1996). Experience-dependent plasticity of binocular responses in the primary visual cortex of the mouse. Journal of Neuroscience 16, 3274–3286.Google Scholar
Gould, H.J., 3rd. (1984). Interhemispheric connections of the visual cortex in the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Journal of Comparative Neurology 223, 259–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, D.G., Powers, M.K., & Banks, M.S. (1980). Depth of focus, eye size and visual acuity. Vision Research 20, 827–835.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grinvald, A., Lieke, E., Frostig, R.D., Gilbert, C.D., & Wiesel, T.N. (1986). Functional architecture of cortex revealed by optical imaging of intrinsic signals. Nature 324, 361–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gur, M. & Purple, R.L. (1978). Retinal ganglion cell activity in the ground squirrel under halothane anesthesia. Vision Research 18, 1–14.Google Scholar
Gur, M. & Sivak, J.G. (1979). Refractive state of the eye of a small diurnal mammal: The ground squirrel. Journal of the Optical Society of America B 56, 689–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hale, P.T., Sefton, A.J., & Dreher, B. (1979). A correlation of receptive field properties with conduction velocity of cells in the rat's retino-geniculo-cortical pathway. Experimental Brain Research 35, 425–442.Google Scholar
Hall, W.C., Kaas, J.H., Killackey, H., & Diamond, I.T. (1971). Cortical visual areas in the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis): A correlation between cortical evoked potential maps and architectonic subdivisions. Journal of Neurophysiology 34, 437–452.Google Scholar
Harting, J.K. & Huerta, M.F. (1983). The geniculostriate projection in the grey squirrel: Preliminary autoradiographic data. Brain Research 272, 341–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harting, J.K., Huerta, M.F., Hashikawa, T., & van Lieshout, D.P. (1991). Projection of the mammalian superior colliculus upon the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus: Organization of tectogeniculate pathways in nineteen species. Journal of Comparative Neurology 304, 275–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollander, H. & Halbig, W. (1980). Topography of retinal representation in the rabbit cortex: An experimental study using transneuronal and retrograde tracing techniques. Journal of Comparative Neurology 193, 701–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horton, J.C. & Adams, D.L. (2005). The cortical column: A structure without a function. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360, 837–862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. (1975). An autoradiographic study of the retino-cortical projections in the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Brain Research 96, 41–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H., LeVay, S., & Wiesel, T.N. (1975). Mode of termination of retinotectal fibers in macaque monkey: An autoradiographic study. Brain Research 96, 25–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1959). Receptive fields of single neurones in the cat's striate cortex. Journal of Physiology 148, 574–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1960). Receptive fields of optic nerve fibres in the spider monkey. Journal of Physiology 154, 572–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. Journal of Physiology 160, 106–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1963). Shape and arrangement of columns in cat's striate cortex. Journal of Physiology 165, 559–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1968). Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex. Journal of Physiology 195, 215–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubel, D.H., Wiesel, T.N., & Stryker, M.P. (1978). Anatomical demonstration of orientation columns in macaque monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology 177, 361–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, A. (1975). A quantitative analysis of the cat retinal ganglion cell topography. Journal of Comparative Neurology 163, 107–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphrey, A.L. & Norton, T.T. (1980). Topographic organization of the orientation column system in the striate cortex of the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). I. Microelectrode recording. Journal of Comparative Neurology 192, 531–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ibbotson, M.R. & Mark, R.F. (2003). Orientation and spatiotemporal tuning of cells in the primary visual cortex of an Australian marsupial, the wallaby Macropus eugenii. Journal of Physiology 189, 115–123.Google Scholar
Immel, J.H. & Fisher, S.K. (1985). Cone photoreceptor shedding in the tree shrew (Tupaia belangerii). Cell Tissue Research 239, 667–675.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. (1975). Scotopic and photopic visual capacities of an arboreal squirrel (sciurus niger). Brain, Behavior and Evolution 10, 307–321.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. (1977). Visual capacities of the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus)–II. Spatial contrast sensitivity. Vision Research 17, 821–825.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H., Birch, D.G., & Blakeslee, B. (1982). Visual acuity and spatial contrast sensitivity in tree squirrels. Behavioural Processes 7, 367–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G.H., Blakeslee, B., McCourt, M.E., & Tootell, R.H. (1980a). Visual sensitivity of ground squirrels to spatial and temporal luminance variations. Journal of Comparative Physiology 136, 291–299.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H., Calderone, J.B., Sakai, T., Lewis, G.P., & Fisher, S.K. (2002). An animal model for studying cone function in retinal detachment. Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology 104, 119–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. & Neitz, J. (1985). Color vision in squirrel monkeys: Sex-related differences suggest the mode of inheritance. Vision Research 25, 141–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. & Tootell, R.B. (1980). Spectrally-opponent responses in ground squirrel optic nerve. Vision Research 20, 9–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. & Tootell, R.B. (1981). Spectral-response properties of optic-nerve fibers in the ground squirrel. Journal of Neurophysiology 45, 891–902.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H., Tootell, R.B., Fisher, S.K., & Anderson, D.H. (1980b). Rod photoreceptors and scotopic vision in ground squirrels. Journal of Comparative Neurology 189, 113–125.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. & Yolton, R.L. (1969). Dichromacy in the ground squirrel. Nature 223, 414–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G.H. & Yolton, R.L. (1971). Visual sensitivity and color vision in ground squirrels. Vision Research 11, 511–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, P.T., Geller, S.F., & Reese, B.E. (1998). Distribution, size and number of axons in the optic pathway of ground squirrels. Experimental Brain Research 118, 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaas, J.H. (1996). What comparative studies of neocortex tell us about the human brain. Revista Brasileira de Biologia 56, 315–322.Google Scholar
Kaas, J.H. (1997). Topographic maps are fundamental to sensory processing. Brain Research Bulletin 44, 107–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaas, J.H., Guillery, R.W., & Allman, J.M. (1972a). Some principles of organization in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 6, 253–299.Google Scholar
Kaas, J.H., Hall, W.C., & Diamond, I.T. (1972b). Visual cortex of the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis): Architectonic subdivisions and connections from the visual thalamus. Journal of Comparative Neurology 145, 273–305.Google Scholar
Kaas, J.H., Harting, J.K., & Guillery, R.W. (1974). Representation of the complete retina in the contralateral superior colliculus of some mammals. Brain Research 65, 343–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaas, J.H., Krubitzer, L.A., & Johanson, K.L. (1989). Cortical connections of areas 17 (V-I) and 18 (V-II) of squirrels. Journal of Comparative Neurology 281, 426–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kicliter, E., Loop, M.S., & Jane, J.A. (1977). Effects of posterior neocortical lesions on wavelength, light/dark and stripe orientation discrimination in ground squirrels. Brain Research 122, 15–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kryger, Z., Galli-Resta, L., Jacobs, G.H., & Reese, B.E. (1998). The topography of rod and cone photoreceptors in the retina of the ground squirrel. Visual Neuroscience 15, 685–691.Google Scholar
Kuffler, S.W. (1953). Discharge patterns and functional organization of mammalian retina. Journal of Neurophysiology 16, 37–68.Google Scholar
Lane, R.H., Allman, J.M., & Kaas, J.H. (1971). Representation of the visual field in the superior colliculus of the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Brain Research 26, 277–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, R.H., Allman, J.M., Kaas, J.H., & Miezin, F.M. (1973). The visuotopic organization of the superior colliculus of the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus) and the bush baby (Galago senegalensis). Brain Research 60, 335–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Law, M.I., Zahs, K.R., & Stryker, M.P. (1988). Organization of primary visual cortex (area 17) in the ferret. Journal of Comparative Neurology 278, 157–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeVay, S., McConnell, S.K., & Luskin, M.B. (1987). Functional organization of primary visual cortex in the mink (Mustela vison), and a comparison with the cat. Journal of Comparative Neurology 257, 422–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, C., Cheng, M., Yang, H., Peachey, N.S., & Naash, M.I. (2001). Age-related changes in the mouse outer retina. Optometry & Vision Science 78, 425–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, W. & DeVries, S.H. (2004). Separate blue and green cone networks in the mammalian retina. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 7, 751–756.Google Scholar
Linberg, K.A., Sakai, T., Lewis, G.P., & Fisher, S.K. (2002). Experimental retinal detachment in the cone-dominant ground squirrel retina: Morphology and basic immunocytochemistry. Visual Neuroscience 19, 603–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linberg, K.A., Suemune, S., & Fisher, S.K. (1996). Retinal neurons of the California ground squirrel, Spermophilus beecheyi: A Golgi study. Journal of Comparative Neurology 365, 173–216.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linsenmeier, R.A., Frishman, L.J., Jakiela, H.G., & Enroth-Cugell, C. (1982). Receptive field properties of x and y cells in the cat retina derived from contrast sensitivity measurements. Vision Research 22, 1173–1183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livingstone, M.S. (1996). Ocular dominance columns in New World monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience 16, 2086–2096.Google Scholar
Livingstone, M.S. & Hubel, D.H. (1984). Anatomy and physiology of a color system in the primate visual cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 4, 309–356.Google Scholar
Long, K.O. & Fisher, S.K. (1983). The distributions of photoreceptors and ganglion cells in the California ground squirrel, Spermophilus beecheyi. Journal of Comparative Neurology 221, 329–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lugo-Garcia, N. & Blanco, R.E. (1993). Dopaminergic neurons in the cone-dominated ground squirrel retina: A light and electron microscopy study. Journal of Hirnforsch 34, 561–569.Google Scholar
Lugo-Garcia, N. & Kicliter, E. (1988). Morphology of ganglion cells which project to the dorsal lateral geniculate and superior colliculus in the ground squirrel. Brain Research 454, 67–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyon, D.C., Jain, N., & Kaas, J.H. (2003). The visual pulvinar in tree shrews II. Projections of four nuclei to areas of visual cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 467, 607–627.Google Scholar
Major, D.E., Luksch, H., & Karten, H.J. (2000). Bottlebrush dendritic endings and large dendritic fields: Motion-detecting neurons in the mammalian tectum. Journal of Comparative Neurology 423, 243–260.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Major, D.E., Rodman, H.R., Libedinsky, C., & Karten, H.J. (2003). Pattern of retinal projections in the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi): Anterograde tracing study using cholera toxin. Journal of Comparative Neurology 463, 317–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, P.R., White, A.J., Goodchild, A.K., Wilder, H.D., & Sefton, A.E. (1997). Evidence that blue-on cells are part of the third geniculocortical pathway in primates. European Journal of Neuroscience 9, 1536–1541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maunsell, J.H. & Van Essen, D.C. (1983). Functional properties of neurons in middle temporal visual area of the macaque monkey. I. Selectivity for stimulus direction, speed, and orientation. Journal of Neurophysiology 49, 1127–1147.Google Scholar
McBrien, N.A., Moghaddam, H.O., New, R., & Williams, L.R. (1993). Experimental myopia in a diurnal mammal (Sciurus carolinensis) with no accommodative ability. Journal of Physiology 469, 427–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConnell, S.K. & LeVay, S. (1986). Anatomical organization of the visual system of the mink, Mustela vison. Journal of Comparative Neurology 250, 109–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCourt, M.E. & Jacobs, G.H. (1984a). Directional filter characteristics of optic nerve fibers in California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi). Journal of Neurophysiology 52, 1200–1212.Google Scholar
McCourt, M.E. & Jacobs, G.H. (1984b). Refractive state, depth of focus and accommodation of the eye of the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi). Vision Research 24, 1261–1266.Google Scholar
McCourt, M.E. & Jacobs, G.H. (1984c). Spatial filter characteristics of optic nerve fibers in California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi). Journal of Neurophysiology 52, 1181–1199.Google Scholar
Metín, C., Godement, P., & Imbert, M. (1988). The primary visual cortex in the mouse: Receptive field properties and functional organization. Experimental Brain Research 69, 594–612.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1968a). Receptive fields of single optic nerve fibers in a mammal with an all-cone retina. 3. Opponent color units. Journal of Neurophysiology 31, 268–282.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1968b). Receptive fields of single optic nerve fibers in a mammal with an all-cone retina. I: Contrast-sensitive units. Journal of Neurophysiology 31, 249–256.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1968c). Receptive fields of single optic nerve fibers in a mammal with an all-cone retina. II: Directionally selective units. Journal of Neurophysiology 31, 257–267.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1972a). Functional organization of cells in superior colliculus of the ground squirrel. Journal of Neurophysiology 35, 833–846.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1972b). Visual receptive fields of single neurons in superior colliculus of the ground squirrel. Journal of Neurophysiology 35, 815–832.Google Scholar
Michael, C.R. (1973). Opponent-color and opponent-contrast cells in lateral geniculate nucleus of the ground squirrel. Journal of Neurophysiology 36, 536–550.Google Scholar
Montero, V.M., Brugge, J.F., & Beitel, R.E. (1968). Relation of the visual field to the lateral geniculate body of the albino rat. Journal of Neurophysiology 31, 221–236.Google Scholar
Moore, S. (2001). The anatomy of the visual system of the gray squirrel as revealed by histological and histochemical techniques. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University, Department of Biology.
Morigiwa, K., Sawai, H., Wakakuwa, K., Mitani-Yamanishi, Y., & Fukuda, Y. (1988). Retinal inputs and laminar distributions of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus relay cells in the eastern chipmunk (Tamias sibiricus asiaticus). Experimental Brain Research 71, 527–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, E.H. & Berman, N. (1979). The rabbit and the cat: A comparison of some features of response properties of single cells in the primary visual cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 188, 401–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orban, G.A., Kennedy, H., & Bullier, J. (1986). Velocity sensitivity and direction selectivity of neurons in areas V1 and V2 of the monkey: Influence of eccentricity. Journal of Neurophysiology 56, 462–480.Google Scholar
Owings, D.H., Coss, R.G., McKernon, D., Rowe, M.P., & Arrowood, P.C. (2001). Snake-directed antipredator behavior of rock squirrels (spermophilus variegatus): Population differences and snake-species discrimination. Behaviour 138, 575–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pakhotin, P.I., Belousov, A.B., & Otmakhov, N.A. (1990). Functional stability of the brain slices of ground squirrels, Citellus undulatus, kept in conditions of prolonged deep periodic hypothermia: Electrophysiological criteria. Neuroscience 38, 591–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paolini, M. & Sereno, M.I. (1998). Direction selectivity in the middle lateral and lateral (ML and L) visual areas in the California ground squirrel. Cerebral Cortex 8, 362–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearlman, A.L. & Daw, N.W. (1970). Opponent color cells in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus. Science 167, 84–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, V.H., Oehler, R., & Cowey, A. (1984). Retinal ganglion cells that project to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus in the macaque monkey. Neuroscience 12, 1101–1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petry, H.M., Fox, R., & Casagrande, V.A. (1984). Spatial contrast sensitivity of the tree shrew. Vision Research 24, 1037–1042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettigrew, J.D., Ramachandran, V.S., & Bravo, H. (1984). Some neural connections subserving binocular vision in ungulates. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 24, 65–93.Google Scholar
Polkoshnikov, E. & Supin, A. (1988). Receptive field properties of neurons in the squirrel striate cortex. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis (Wars) 48, 49–69.Google Scholar
Prusky, G.T., West, P.W., & Douglas, R.M. (2000). Behavioral assessment of visual acuity in mice and rats. Vision Research 40, 2201–2209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, S.C., Toth, L.J., & Sur, M. (1997). Optically imaged maps of orientation preference in primary visual cortex of cats and ferrets. Journal of Comparative Neurology 387, 358–370.Google Scholar
Rebrik, T.I. & Korenbrot, J.I. (2004). In intact mammalian photoreceptors, Ca2+-dependent modulation of cGMP-gated ion channels is detectable in cones but not in rods. Journal of General Physiology 123, 63–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reese, B.E. & Jeffery, G. (1983). Crossed and uncrossed visual topography in dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the pigmented rat. Journal of Neurophysiology 49, 877–885.Google Scholar
Revishchin, A.V. & Polkoshnikov, E.V. (2000). Selectivity of squirrel parastriate cortical neurons for speed and direction of moving stimuli. Doklady Biological Sciences 372, 255–257.Google Scholar
Rivera, N. & Lugo, N. (1998). Four retinal ganglion cell types that project to the superior colliculus in the thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus). Journal of Comparative Neurology 396, 105–120.3.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robson, J.A. & Hall, W.C. (1976). Projections from the superior colliculus to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Brain Research 113, 379–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robson, J.A. & Hall, W.C. (1977). The organization of the pulvinar in the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). I. Cytoarchitecture and connections. Journal of Comparative Neurology 173, 355–388.Google Scholar
Rocha-Miranda, C.E., Linden, R., Volchan, E., Lent, R., & Bombar-Dieri, R.A., Jr. (1976). Receptive field properties of single units in the opossum striate cortex. Brain Research 104, 197–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodman, H.R. & Dieguez, D. (2003). The koniocellular pathway and the thalamo-cortical projection in the ground squirrel. 701.8. In SFN Meeting.
Rosa, M.G. & Krubitzer, L.A. (1999). The evolution of visual cortex: Where is V2? Trends in Neuroscience 22, 242–248.Google Scholar
Royce, G.J., Ward, J.P., & Harting, J.K. (1976). Retinofugal pathways in two marsupials. Journal of Comparative Neurology 170, 391–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruthazer, E.S. & Stryker, M.P. (1996). The role of activity in the development of long-range horizontal connections in area 17 of the ferret. Journal of Neuroscience 16, 7253–7269.Google Scholar
Sakai, T., Calderone, J.B., Lewis, G.P., Linberg, K.A., Fisher, S.K., & Jacobs, G.H. (2003). Cone photoreceptor recovery after experimental detachment and reattachment: An immunocytochemical, morphological, and electrophysiological study. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 44, 416–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanna, P.P., Keyser, K.T., Celio, M.R., Karten, H.J., & Bloom, F.E. (1993). Distribution of parvalbumin immunoreactivity in the vertebrate retina. Brain Research 600, 141–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuett, S., Bonhoeffer, T., & Hubener, M. (2002). Mapping retinotopic structure in mouse visual cortex with optical imaging. Journal of Neuroscience 22, 6549–6559.Google Scholar
Shatz, C.J. & Stryker, M.P. (1978). Ocular dominance in layer IV of the cat's visual cortex and the effects of monocular deprivation. Journal of Physiology 281, 267–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, S.M. & Guillery, R.W. (2002). The role of the thalamus in the flow of information to the cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 357, 1695–1708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shorten, M. (1954). Squirrels. London: Collins.
Sinclair, J.R., Jacobs, A.L., & Nirenberg, S. (2004). Selective ablation of a class of amacrine cells alters spatial processing in the retina. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 1459–1467.Google Scholar
Snyder, M. & Diamond, I.T. (1968). Organization and Function of Visual Cortex in Tree Shrew. Brain Behavior and Evolution 1, 244–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spear, P.D. & Baumann, T.P. (1975). Receptive-field characteristics of single neurons in lateral suprasylvian visual area of the cat. Journal of Neurophysiology 38, 1403–1420.Google Scholar
Sterling, P. (1990). Retina. In The synaptic organization of the brain, ed. Shepherd, G.M., pp. 170–213. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stone, J. & Dreher, B. (1973). Projection of X- and Y-cells of the cat's lateral geniculate nucleus to areas 17 and 18 of visual cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology 36, 551–567.Google Scholar
Swadlow, H.A. & Weyand, T.G. (1985). Receptive-field and axonal properties of neurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of awake unparalyzed rabbits. Journal of Neurophysiology 54, 168–183.Google Scholar
Szel, A. & Rohlich, P. (1988). Four photoreceptor types in the ground squirrel retina as evidenced by immunocytochemistry. Vision Research 28, 1297–1302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiao, Y.C. & Blakemore, C. (1976). Functional organization in the visual cortex of the golden hamster. Journal of Comparative Neurology 168, 459–481.Google Scholar
Tigges, J. (1970). Retinal projections to subcortical optic nuclei in diurnal and nocturnal squirrels. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 3, 121–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tigges, J. & Tigges, M. (1969). The accessory optic system and other optic fibers of the squirrel monkey. Folia Primatologica 10, 245–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Usrey, W.M. & Reid, R.C. (2000). Visual physiology of the lateral geniculate nucleus in two species of new world monkey: Saimiri sciureus and Aotus trivirgatis. Journal of Physiology 523 Pt 3, 755–769.Google Scholar
Van Hooser, S.D., Heimel, J.A., Chung, S., & Nelson, S.B. (2006). Horizontal connectivity in primary visual cortex of a highly visual mammal lacking orientation maps. Journal of Neuroscience 26, 7680–7692.Google Scholar
Van Hooser, S.D., Heimel, J.A., Chung, S., & Nelson, S.B. (2006). Lack of patchy horizontal connectivity in primary visual cortex of a highly visual mammal without orientation maps. Journal of Neuroscience 26, 7680–7692.Google Scholar
Van Hooser, S.D., Heimel, J.A., Chung, S., Nelson, S.B., & Toth, L.J. (2005). Orientation selectivity without orientation maps in visual cortex of a highly visual mammal. Journal of Neuroscience 25, 19–28.Google Scholar
Van Hooser, S.D., Heimel, J.A., & Nelson, S.B. (2003). Receptive field properties and laminar organization of lateral geniculate nucleus in the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Journal of Neurophysiology 90, 3398–3418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaughan, D.K., Gruber, A.R., Michalski, M.L., Seidling, J., & Schlink, S. (2006). Capture, care, and captive breeding of 13-lined ground squirrels, Spermophilus tridecemlineatus. Lab Animal (NY) 35, 33–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walls, G.L. (1942). The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. Bloomfield Hills, MI: The Cranbook Press.CrossRef
Ward, J.P. & Masterton, B. (1970). Encephalization and visual cortex in tree shrew (Tupaia-Glis). Brain Behavior and Evolution 3, 421–469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ware, C.B., Casagrande, V.A., & Diamond, I.T. (1972). Does the acuity of the tree shrew suffer from removal of striate cortex? A commentary on the paper by ward and Masterton. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 5, 18–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S.V. & Kaas, J.H. (1976). The sizes and distribution of ganglion cells in the retina of the owl monkey. Aotus trivirgatus. Vision Research 16, 1247–1254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, J.T., Casagrande, V.A., & Harting, J.K. (1977). Transneuronal transport of [3H]proline within the visual system of the grey squirrel. Brain Research 129, 346–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, E.R., Raman, D., Shirakawa, S., Ducceschi, M.H., Bertram, P.T., Wong, F., Kraft, T.W., & Osawa, S. (1998). The cloning of GRK7, a candidate cone opsin kinase, from cone- and rod-dominant mammalian retinas. Molecular Vision 4, 27.Google Scholar
West, R.W. (1976). Light and electron microscopy of the ground squirrel retina: Functional considerations. Journal of Comparative Neurology 168, 355–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, R.W. (1978). Bipolar and horizontal cells of the gray squirrel retina: Golgi morphology and receptor connections. Vision Research 18, 129–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, R.W. & Dowling, J.E. (1975). Anatomical evidence for cone and rod-like receptors in the gray squirrel, ground squirrel, and prairie dog retinas. Journal of Comparative Neurology 159, 439–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, A.J., Wilder, H.D., Goodchild, A.K., Sefton, A.J., & Martin, P.R. (1998). Segregation of receptive field properties in the lateral geniculate nucleus of a New-World monkey, the marmoset Callithrix jacchus. Journal of Neurophysiology 80, 2063–2076.Google Scholar
Wiesel, T.N. & Hubel, D.H. (1966). Spatial and chromatic interactions in the lateral geniculate body of the rhesus monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 29, 1115–1156.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. (2000). A new labor agreement for the retina? Neuron 28, 628–629.Google Scholar
Wong-Riley, M.T. & Norton, T.T.. (1988). Histochemical localization of cytochrome oxidase activity in the visual system of the tree shrew: Normal patterns and the effect of retinal impulse blockage. Journal of Comparative Neurology 272, 562–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wässle, H., Levick, W.R., & Cleland, B.G. (1975). The distribution of the alpha type of ganglion cells in the cat's retina. Journal of Comparative Neurology 159, 419–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wässle, H. & Riemann, H.J. (1978). The mosaic of nerve cells in the mammalian retina. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 200, 441–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yolton, R.L., Yolton, D.P., Renz, J., & Jacobs, G.H. (1974). Preretinal absorbance in sciurid eyes. Journal of Mammal 55, 14–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar