¹ Popper, Karl, The Myth of the Framework: in Defence of Science and Rationality (Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar, 35 (italics in original)

² Popper, op. cit., 35–36

³ Cf. Fakhry, Majid, A history of Islamic philosophy, Columbia University Press, 2004Google Scholar; Sharif, M. M. (ed.), A History of Muslim Philosophy, (two volumes) (Weisbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1963Google Scholar); Walzer, Richard, ‘The Rise of Islamic Philosophy’, Oriens, 3(1) (1950), 1–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nasr, S. H., & Leaman, Oliver (eds), History of Islamic Philosophy (Routledge, 1996)Google Scholar

⁴ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, ‘Persia and the Destiny of Islamic Philosophy’, Studies in Comparative Religion, 6(1) (1972)Google Scholar; Corbin, Henry, History of Islamic Philosophy (Kegan Paul International, 1962)Google Scholar

⁵ Popper, Karl, ‘The rationality of Scientific Revolutions’, in The Myth of the Framework: in Defence of Science and Rationality (Routledge, 1994), 1–32Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., 3

⁷ Ibid.

⁸ Motahari, Morteza, Ashnaei ba ‘ulum-e Eslami (An Introduction to the [classic] ‘Islamic Sciences’), (Tehran: Sadra Publications, 1358/1979Google Scholar); Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, ‘The Qur'an and Hadith as source and inspiration of Islamic philosophy’, in History of Islamic Philosophy, edited by Nasr, Seyyed Hossein and Leaman, Oliver (Routledge, 1996), 27–39Google Scholar; Sharif, M. M., ‘Philosophical Teachings of the Quran’, in Sharif, M. M. (ed.), A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol. 1, 136–154Google Scholar; Campanini, Massimo, An Introduction to Islamic Philosophy (SEPS, 2009)Google Scholar

⁹ The first two sects gradually turned into the two largest sects in Islam which exist today and each are divided into a number of sub-sects. The latter two sects did not last long, though their ideas are still present in the intellectual ecosystem of Islamic doctrines. Kharijites were advocating a very strict adherence to their own literal reading of shariʿa law and were intolerant and inflexible in imposing their desired order. Murji'ah, on the other hand, were of the view that, one should not condemn even the most corrupt and cruel individuals who regard themselves as Muslim; only God can pass judgement on their fate. Cf. Blankinship, Khalid, ‘The early creed’, in The Cambridge companion to classical Islamic theology, edited by Winter, Tim(Cambridge University Press, 2008), 33–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fakhry, A history of Islamic philosophy, op. cit.; Goldziher, Ignaz, ‘The Growth and Development of Dogmatic Theology’, in Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law (Princeton University Press, 1981), 67–115Google Scholar

¹⁰ Motahri, Morteza, ‘Adl-e Elahi (Divine Justice) (Tehran: Sadra Publications, 1352/1973Google Scholar); Wolfson, Harry, The Philosophy of Kalam (Harvard University Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Sharif, M. M. (ed.), A History of Muslim Philosophy, op. cit. (Book Three, Part 1, X & XI), 199–243Google Scholar; van Ess, Josef, The Flowering of Muslim Theology (Harvard University Press, 1998/2006).Google Scholar

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¹² Abd Al Rahman bin Muhammed ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, Translated by Rosenthal, Franz, Princeton University Press, 1967Google ScholarPubMed (available on the internet at: http://thequranblog.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/al-muqadimmah-for-ibn-khaldoon1.pdf (accessed 10, Jan, 2013) footnotes suppressed; quoted in, Hamedani, Hussein Masumi, ‘Mian-e Falsafeh va Kalam: Bahthi dar Araa-e Tabiʿee-ye Fakhr Razi’ (Between Philosophy and Kalam: A Discussion Concerning Fakhr Razi's Naturalistic Views), Ma‘aref 3(1) (1365/1988), 198–199.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, op. cit.

¹⁵ Ghazzali, Maqasid al falasifa (The Intentions of the Philosophers 1094), (Arabic Text), ed. S. Dunya (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1961). Available on line at: http://Ghazzali.org/books/maqasid-dun.pdf. A more recent edition has been prepared by Mahmood Biju (Damascus: Maktabat al-Sabah, 2000), Available at: http://Ghazzali.org/books/maqasid-bejou.pdf.

For other Arabic editions of the book which are available on line visit: http://www.maktabah.org/component/content/article/75-misc/931-maqasid-al-falasifah-aims-of-the-philosophers---by-imam-Ghazzali.html?directory=143

¹⁶ Ghazzali, Tahafut al falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers 1095). There are two English translations of this book, one by Michael E. Marmura, Brigham Young University, 2002, another, earlier, and somewhat abridged version by Sabih Ahmad Kamali (Pakistan Philosophical Congress, 1963)

¹⁷ Masumi Hamedani (1998), op.cit.; Watt, Montgomery, Islamic Theology and Philosophy, Edinburgh University Press, 1985Google Scholar; Shihadeh, Ayman, ‘From Al-Ghazali to Al-Razi: 6^th/12^th Century Development in Muslim Philosophical Theology’, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 15 (2005) 141–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²¹ M. M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, op. cit.; Nasr & Leaman, A History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit.; Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, op. cit.; Nasr, Islamic Science: An Illustrated History, op. cit.; Charles Gillispie, Coulston (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Scribner, 1980)Google Scholar; Hogendijk, J. P., Sabra, A. I. (eds), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives (MIT, 2003)Google Scholar

²² See Daiber, H., ‘Masa'il wa-Adjwiba’ in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition) (Brill, 1991, Vol. VI), 636–9Google Scholar

²³ Ibn Sina – Al-Biruni Correspondence, Translated by Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, available at: http://www.cis-ca.org/jol/vol1-no1/ibnsina-al-beruni-fp.pdf; Al-As'ilah wa'l Ajwibah (Questions and Answers): Al-Biruni and Ibn Sina, Arabic edited text with English and Persian introductions by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Mehdi Mohaghegh (International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, Kuala Lumpur, 1995); Also see, Mohsen Jahangiri, ‘Khordeh Giran-e Ibn Sina’ (Ibn Sina's Critics), in Proceedings of Ibn Sina's Millennium Conference (Publications of UNESCO's National Commission in Iran, 1979), 225–272. Prof. Jahangiri, besides the case of Ibn Sina–Abu Rayhan Biruni's correspondence, discusses other examples of intellectual correspondence/critical exchanges between Ibn Sina and his peers and responds to some of the well-known critiques of Sinaeian system.

²⁴ S. H. Nasr, ‘Introduction’, in Al-As'ilah wa'l Ajwibah (Questions and Answers), op. cit., quoted in Berjak and Iqbal, op. cit.

²⁵ The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence, edited by, Alexander, H. G.(Manchester University Press, 1956)Google ScholarPubMed

²⁶ Op. cit., Ibn Sina – Al-Biruni Correspondence, Trans. by Berjak and Iqbal.

²⁷ Mez, Adam, Die Renaissance des Islams (Hildesheim, 1968; reprint of 1922 edition)Google Scholar; English translation by Margoliouth, S. K. Bakhsh and D. S., The Renaissance of Islam (London, 1927)Google Scholar, quoted in Kraemer, Joel L., ‘Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: A Preliminary Study’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 104(1) (1984) 135–164CrossRefGoogle Scholar, (135). See also Kraemer's introduction to the second edition of his book, Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The cultural Revival During the Buyid Age (Brill, 1992).Google Scholar

²⁸ Al-Kindi, Fi al-Falsafa al-Ula (On First Philosophy), trans. by A. Ivry, Al-Kindi's Metaphysics (Albany, 1974), 58, quoted in Joel L. Kraemer, ‘Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: A Preliminary Study’, op. cit., 149

²⁹ Moosa, Ibrahim, ‘Muslim Ethics?’ in The Blackwell Companion To Religious Ethics, edited by Schweiker, William (Blackwell, 2005), 237–243.Google Scholar

³⁰ Kraemer, op. cit. p. 151; Lenn Goodman, Islamic Humanism (Oxford University Press, 2003), 108–109

³¹ Saliba, George, Islamic Sciences and the Making of European Renaissance (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007)Google Scholar; J. P. Hogendijk, A. I. Sabra (eds), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, op. cit.; Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, op. cit.

³² Briffault, Robert in The Making of Humanity (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1928), 190–1Google Scholar, quoted in Sharif, M. M., A History of Islamic Philosophy, vol. 22, 1355–56Google Scholar

³³ Burnett, Charles, ‘Islamic Philosophy- Transmission into Western Europe’, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Version 1.0 (London: Routledge, 1998)Google Scholar

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³⁵ Fakhry, Majid, History of Islamic Philosophy (Routledge, 1993)Google Scholar, 68.

³⁶ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil, accessed: 31/1/13.

³⁷ Abdus-Salam has noted in his Ideals and Realities (World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd, 1990)Google ScholarPubMed, 197

³⁸ Ghazzali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, trans. by Michael Marmura, op.cit., 226

³⁹ Cf. Marmura (2002), op. cit. and Kamali (1963), op. cit.

⁴⁰ Ghazzali, Ihya’ ‘Ulum ad-Din (Revival of Religious Sciences), edited by Hafiz Iraqi and Abd al-Rahim bin Hussain, Dar al-Nashr al-Arabi (n.d.p, n.p.p). There are many editions of Ghazzali's magnum opus in Arabic. English translations of the volumes of the Ihya are done by various translators. Many of these translations can be accessed on-line at http://www.ghazali.org/site/ihya.htm. Also see, The Revival of Religious Sciences, trans. by Bankey Behari, [No place of publication]: Sufi Publ. Co., 1964/1972

⁴¹ Ghazzali, Ihya' ‘Ulum ad-Din (the Revival of Islamic Sciences), Book 1, The Book of Knowledge, translated by Nabih Amin Faris, Islamic Book Service, 30. This text is available on line at: http://www.ghazali.org/site/ihya.htm

⁴² Ghazazli, Ihay’, Ibid, book 1, 30–38

⁴³ Ibid.

⁴⁴ Ibid., 39

⁴⁵ Ibid.

⁴⁶ Mulla Muhsin Faid Kashani, Mahajja al-Bida fi Tahdhib al-Ihya, edited by Ali Akbar Ghaffari, Qom, Intesharat-e Jameʿa Modarresin Qom, n.d.p.

⁴⁷ Mirza Abu'l Fazl Zanjani, et al. Nameh Daneshvaran (Intellectual Biographies of Scholars, 1296/1878), Vol. 1, 613

⁴⁸ Farabi, Ihsa al-‘Ulum (Beirut: Dar wa Maktabata al-Hilah, 1375/1996), 15–16; I have used S. H. Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 60–62, with some revision based on the original Arabic text. See also Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit. Fakhry, somewhat misleadingly suggests that Fabari ‘classifies them [sciences of his day] under eight headings’. (page 115)

⁴⁹ Schacht, Joseph, In Introduction to Philosophy of Law in Islam (Oxford University Press, 1984), 71–72Google Scholar, quoted in Hallaq, Wael B., ‘Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16(1) (1984), 3–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar (page 5). Hallaq tries to reject the view that the gate of ijtihad was closed among the Sunni Muslims. However, his arguments actually corroborate a sad historical fact.

⁵⁰ Cf. M. M. Sharif (1963), op. cit.; Nasr & Leamn (1996) op. cit; Fakhry (2003), op. cit.

⁵¹ Ibn Rushd, Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence), edited by Soleiman Donia (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘ariff, 1964); Averroës’ Tahafut al-Tahafut, translated by van der Bergh, Simon (The Trustees of the Gibb Memorial, 1954Google Scholar). See also, Fakhry, Majid, Averroës (Ibn Rushd): His Life, Works, and Influence (One World, 2008Google Scholar). The efficacy and cogency of Ibn Rushd's Arguments against Ghazzali is disputed by some scholars. See for example, Josef Puig Muntada, ‘Ibn Rushd vs. Ghazali: Reconsideration of a Polemic’, The Muslim World LXXXII(1–2) (1992), 113–131

⁵² Derek Gatherer, ‘Meme Pools, World 3 and Averroës' Vision of Immortality’ Zygon 33(2) (1998), 203–219. Resemblance between Ibn Rushd's Active Mind and Popper's World 3 (third world) however, should not be exaggerated. With regard to W3 Popper points out that: ‘Although man-made, the third world (as I understand the term) is superhuman in that its contents are virtual rather than actual objects of thought, and in the sense that only a finite number of the infinity of virtual objects can ever become actual objects of thought. We must beware, however, of interpreting these objects as thoughts of a superhuman consciousness as did, for example, Aristotle, Plotinus, and Hegel.’ (Popper, Objective Knowledge (Oxford University Press, 1972), n8, 199)

⁵³ Rushd, Ibn (Averroës), ‘On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy’ in The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, trans. Jamil-al-Rehman, Mohammed, Baroda: A.G. Widgery, 1921Google Scholar; Fakhry, Majid, ‘Al-Farabi and the Reconciliation of Plato and Aristotle’, Journal of the History of Ideas 26(4) (1965), 469–478CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁴ Martin Plessner ‘Heresy and Rationalism in the First Centuries of Islam’, quoted in Joel L. Kraemer, ‘Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam’, op. cit., 160

⁵⁵ M. M. Sharif, A History of Philosophy, op. cit; Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (eds), History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit.; Reza Akbarian, Seyre-e Falsafa dar Iran-e Eslami (Development of Philosophy in Iran) (Tehran: Entesharat-e Mu'asseseh Tahghighat va Tuse‘ah ‘Ulum-e Ensani, 2008)

⁵⁶ M. M. Sharif, A History of Philosophy, op. cit., 1371; Akbarian, Seyre-e Falsafa dar Iran-e Eslami, op. cit.

⁵⁷ Ibn Sina, al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. Sulayman Dunya (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1957, 4 vols. Vol. 3), 66. See also, Meyer, Toby, ‘Ibn Sina's Burhan al-Siddiqin’, Journal of Islamic Studies 12(1) (2001), 18–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Akbarian, op. cit. 2008. Burhan-e Siddiqin is perhaps the most famous and most important argument for the existence of God developed by Muslim philosophers. Since Ibn Sina's introduction of this argument, many of the great Muslim philosophers have tried to develop more complete versions of this same argument. These new versions, in view of their produces, were free from the shortcomings of the previous versions. A twentieth century Iranian philosopher, Mirza Mehdi Ashtiyani, in his commentary on a major philosophy text of nineteenth century, the Manẓumeh of Haji Sabzevari (Tehran University Press in collaboration with McGill University Press, 1352/1973), has listed nineteen versions of this argument in the works of various Muslim philosophers.

⁵⁸ Ibn Sina, Kitab al-Najat [The Book of Salvation], edited by Majid Fakhry (Beirut: Manshrat Dar al-Jadida al-Afaq, 1986), 326. See also Majid Fakhry, ‘Islam’ in Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Religion, edited by Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Routledge, 2013), 76–86

⁵⁹ Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Tajrid al-Iʿtiqad, Mashhad: Jaʿfari, n.d.; Calder, Norman, Mojaddedi, Jawid, and Rippin, Andrew provide a translation of al-Tusi's Tajrid al-i'tiqad: Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature (London: Routledge, 2003Google Scholar), Section 7.1.

⁶⁰ Popper compares and contrasts the impact of Pythagorean (mystical) and Ionian (Thales) rational schools and their attitude towards open, critical discussion on the subsequent development of knowledge. See his ‘Back to Presocratics’ in Conjectures and Refutations (Routledge, 1963/2002) 183–205. For Ikhwan al-Safa and their School see Kraemer, Joel, Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani and his Circle (Brill, 1986)Google Scholar; de Callataÿ, Godefroid, Ikhwan al-Safa'A Brotherhood of Idealists on the Fringe of Orthodox Islam (Oxford: One World, 2005)Google Scholar; Nade el-Bizi, Epistles of the Brethren of Purity: the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā' and their Rasā'il: an introduction (Oxford University Press, 2008)Google Scholar; Netton, Ian Richard, Muslim Neoplatonists: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity (Routledge Curzon, 2002)Google Scholar

⁶¹ Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit.

⁶² Ibid.

⁶³ Baker, Osman, ‘Science’, in Nasr, S. H. and Leaman, Oliver (eds), A History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit., 942–3Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ibid., 943

⁶⁵ Muslim philosophers make a distinction between wisdom, which they regard to be of Divine nature, and knowledge, which is produced by man's cognitive faculty. For a detailed discussion see Nasr, S. H., Knowledge and the Sacred (SUNY Press, 1989)Google Scholar

⁶⁶ The text of al-Hikmat al-Mashreqiyah is mostly lost. In what has remained, assuming its authenticity, Ibn Sina completely renounces his peripatetic phase: ‘We have been inspired to bring together writings upon the subject matter which has been the source of difference among people disposed to argumentation and not to study it with the eyes of fanaticism, desire, habit, or attachment. We have no fear if we find differences with what the people instructed in Greek books have become familiar with through their own negligence and shortness of understanding. And we have no fear if we reveal to the philosophers something other than what we have written for the common people – the common people who have become enamoured of the Peripatetic philosophers and who think that God has not guided anyone but them or that no one has reached Divine Mercy except them.’ From Manṭiq al-Mashriqiyyīn (The Logic of the Orientals) translated by S. H. Nasr, in An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, volume 1, From Zoroaster to ʿUmar Khayyām, edited by Nasr, S. H. and Aminrazavi, Mehdi (London: I. B. Tauris, 2008Google Scholar), 321

⁶⁷ S. H. Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 187, n. 26.

⁶⁸ Masumi Hamadni, op. cit., 262

⁶⁹ It is interesting to note in passing that Ibn Sina's great detractor, namely Ghazzali, in his later life, just like Ibn Sina, developed a mystical approach in his books like Mishkat al-Anwar (Nich of Lights) in line with Ibn Sina's al-Hikmat al-Mashreqiyah.

⁷⁰ For Suhrawadri's life and work see Nasr, S. H., Three Muslim Sages, Avicenna, Suhrawardi, Ibn 'Arabi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge)Google Scholar. For a comparison between Suhrawardi and Ibn Sina's philosophies see, Aminrazavi, Mehdi, How Ibn Sinian Is Suhrawardi's Theory of Knowledge?, Philosophy East and West 53(2) (2003), 203–214Google Scholar. Aminrazavi argues that the two philosophers adhered to the following hierarchy of knowledge: 1. Knowledge by definition; 2. Knowledge by sense perception; 3. Knowledge through a priori concepts; 4. Knowledge by presence; 5. Knowledge through direct experience: mysticism.

⁷¹ Suhrawardi, Himkmat al-Ishraq (Philosophy of Illumination), translated by Walbridge, John & Ziai, Hossein (Brigham Young University Press, 1999Google Scholar); Suhrawardi, Shahabuddin, Hayakal al-Nur (The Shape of Light), trans. by al-Halveti, Shaykh (Fons Vitae, 1986)Google Scholar

⁷² Suhrawardi, Hikmat al-Ishraq, English translation of Smith, M., Readings from the Mystics of Islam (London, 1950)Google Scholar, 79, quoted in S. H. Nasr, Three Muslim Sages, op. cit., 69

⁷³ Sheikh Shabuddin Suhrawardi, Majmu‘a Mossanafat (Complete Works), ed. by S. H. Nasr (Tehran, Mu'assese Motaleat va Tahqiqat Farhangi (1372/1993), Vol. 2), 96, 65, quoted in, Dakaei, Parviz Abbasi, ‘Qorbat-e Sharqi va Ghorbat-e Gharbi’, Nameh Falsafa 4 (1377/1998)Google Scholar, 112

⁷⁴ Suhrawardi, Hikmat al-Ishraq, 232, 254, quoted in Dakaei, ibid.

⁷⁵ For Ibn Arabi's life and work see William Chittic, Ibn ‘Arabi: Heir to the Prophets (One World, 2005)

⁷⁶ See Chittick, William, In Search of the Lost Heart: Explorations in Islamic Thought (State University of New York Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Chittic, William C., The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi (World Wisdom, 2005)Google Scholar

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⁷⁹ See, Knysh, Alexander, ‘Irfan Revisited: Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy’, in Middle East Journal 46(4) (1992), 631–653Google Scholar

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⁸¹ For an informative account of the socio-political, economic and cultural situation in Iran during the Safavid period see The Cambridge History of Iran, edited by Jackson, Peter (Cambridge University Press, 1986CrossRefGoogle Scholar), Vol, 6.

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⁸⁴ Mostafavi, Zahra, ‘The Implications of the Theory of Dahr and huduth-i dahri in Mir Damad's Hikmat-i Yamani’, Journal of Religious Thought (University of Shiraz, 2007)Google Scholar, 22.

⁸⁵ Nasr. op. cit., ‘the School of Ispahan’, 915

⁸⁶ See, Rahman, Fazlur, ‘Mīr Dāmād's Concept of Ḥudūth Dahrī: A Contribution to the Study of God-World relationship Theories in Safavid Iran’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 39(2) (1980), 139–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸⁸ Fazlur Rahman, op. cit.; Zahra Mostafavi, op. cit., 25; Seyyed Ali Mousavi Behbahani, op. cit., 49–55

⁸⁹ Mostafavi, op. cit.; Seyyed Ali Mousavi Behbahani, op. cit., 55–58

⁹⁰ Stewart, Devin J., ‘Notes on the Migration of ʿĀmilī Scholars to Safavid Iran’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 55(2) (1996), 81–103CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Sheikh Bahaei' life and works see, Hashemipour, Behnaz, ‘ʿĀmilī: Bahāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ḥusayn al-ʿĀmilī’, in Hockey, Thomas et al. (eds). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Springer Reference (New York: Springer, 2007), 42–43Google Scholar; E. Kohlberg, ‘BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿĀMELĪ’, Encyclopaedia Iranica, availabla at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baha-al-din-ameli-shaikh-mohammad-b

⁹¹ S. H. Nasr, ‘the School of Ispahan’. op. cit., 910

⁹² Quoted in Nasr, ibid., 911–2

⁹³ For Mulla Sadra's life, works and philosophy see, Nasr, S. H., Sadr aI-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy: Background, Life and Works (Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978Google Scholar; Rahman, Fazlur), The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi), (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Morris, James Winston, The Wisdom of the Throne: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (Princeton University Press, 1981)Google Scholar; Ziai, Hossein, ‘Mulla Sadra: his life and works’, in Nasr, S. H. and Leaman, Oliver (eds), A History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit., 635–642Google Scholar; Muhammad, Kamal, Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy (Ashgate, 2006)Google Scholar; Kalin, Ibrahim, Knowledge in later Islamic philosophy: Mulla Sadra on existence, intellect, and intuition (Oxford University Press, 2010CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Maysami, Sayeh, Mulla Sadra (One World, 2013)Google Scholar

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⁹⁵ Nasr, S. H., ‘Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra)’, in Sharif, M. M. (ed.), A History of Muslim PhilosophyGoogle Scholar, op. cit., 935

⁹⁶ S. H. Nasr, Sadr aI-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy, op. cit., 35–38

⁹⁷ H. Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy, op. cit., 335–337

⁹⁸ Kamal, Muhammad, Mulla Sadra Transcendent Philosophy (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006)Google Scholar; Burrell, David, ‘Aquinas and Mulla Sadra on the Primacy of Existing’, in Paya, Ali (ed.), The Misty Land of Ideas and the Light of Dialogue: An Anthology of Comparative Philosophy (London: ICAS Press, 2013), 31–48Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Mulla Sadra has presented his metaphysical system in its developed form in his magnum opus, al-Asfar al-Araba‘a (The Four Journeys) (Tehran: Entesharat-e Bonyad Hikmat Islami Sadra, 9 vols). Partial translations of this work are available. For example, Latima-Parvin Peerwani has translated the fourth intellectual journey; Spiritual Psychology (London: ICAS Press, 2008)Google ScholarPubMed

¹⁰⁰ Mulla Sdara, Asfar, the first Journey, op. cit.; Motahari, Morteza, Sharh-e Mabsut Manzumeh (The Longer Commentary on Manzumeh), 3 Vols. (Tehran: Hikmat Publications, Tehran: 1366/1987)Google Scholar; Morteza Motahari, Dars hay-e Asfar (The Teachings of Asfar) (Tehran: Sadra Publications, 1382/2003); Morteza Motahari, Maqalat Falsafi (Philosophical Papers) (Tehran: Sadra Publications, 2002)

¹⁰¹ Mulla Sdara, Asfar, the first and the fourth journeys, op. cit.

¹⁰² Mulla Sadra, Asfar, the first journey, op. cit.; Morteza Motahari, Sharh-e Mabsut-e Manzumeh, op. cit.; Soroush, Abdolkarm, Nahad Na-Aram Jahan (The Never-at-Rest Essence of the Universe) (Tehran: Mu'assese Farhangi Sirat, 1378/1999Google Scholar); Dehbashi, Mehdi, Trans-substantial Motion and the Natural World (ICAS Press, 2010)Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Mulla Sadra, Asfar, op. cit., First, Third and Fourth Journey. Mulla Sadra's theory of human soul allows him to offer a novel solution for the vexed issue of mind-body problem. Since soul emerges from body and remains in touch with body until the end of life of the individual, the usual difficulties which beset a Cartesian model do not affect his model.

¹⁰⁴ Hossein Nasr, Seyyed, Islamic philosophy from its origin to the present: philosophy in the land of prophecy (State University of New York Press, 2006Google Scholar); Morteza Motahari, Sharh-e Mabsut Manẓumeh, op. cit.

¹⁰⁵ S. H. Nasr, op. cit. ‘Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra)’ 960

¹⁰⁶ Gleave, Robert, Scripturalist Islam: The History and Doctrines of the Akhbari Shi‘i School (Brill, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Paya, Ali & Shahi, Malakeh, ‘The Reception of Kant and his Philosophy in Iran’, Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies 3(1) (2010), 25Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Tababatabee & Morteza Motahari, Usul-e Falsafa va Ravesh-e Realism (The Principles and Method of the Philosophy of Realism) (Tehran: 1332/1953)

¹⁰⁹ Lewis, David, Convention: A Philosophical Study (Harvard University Press, 1969)Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Searle, John's Construction of Social Reality (Penguin Books, 1995)Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Tabatabaee, Seyyed Muhammad Hussein, Usul Falsafa Realism (The principles of a Realist Philosophy), (Qom: Markaz Barrasi-ha-yi Islami, 1357Google Scholar (solar)), chapter six. This single volume only contains Allameh Tabatabee's main essays without Ayatollah Motahari's footnotes and annotations.

¹¹² See Miller, David, ‘Overcoming the Justificationist Addiction’, Pazhoheshay-e Falsai (Philosophical Investigations), 1(1) (1387/2008), 1–16.Google Scholar

¹¹³ See, The Quran, 102: 5&7, 56:95, 69:51

¹¹⁴ Tabatabaee, Usul Falsafeh Realism, op.cit., 115

¹¹⁵ For bibliographies of these authors see the catalogue of the Iran's National Library at: http://opac.nlai.ir/opac-prod/search/briefListSearch.do

¹¹⁶ Usul is a semantic machinery which assists fuqha (jurists) in their dealings with semantic entailments of the verses of the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet and Imams. Its relation to fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is more or less like the relation of logic to philosophy. It resembles the tools linguists and hermeneutists have developed to discuss meanings of the texts and/or speakers’ meanings.

¹¹⁷ Sadr, S. M. B., al-Ussus al-Mantaqiyah li'l Istiqra, (Beirut: Dar al-Ta‘aruf li'l Matbu‘at, fourth imprint, 1977/1982)Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Prior to this book he had published another major work, Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy) to rebut the epistemological doctrines of Marxism. That book however, was mostly relying on arguments developed by Allameh Tabatabee and Ayatollah Motahari in The Principles and Method of a Realist Philosophy.

¹¹⁹ The first Muslim philosopher who critically and thoroughly discussed Ayatollah Sadr's theory of induction was Soroush, Abulkarim: ‘Mabni Mantiqi Istiqra’ az Naẓr-e Ayatollah Sadr’ (The Logical Foundations of Induction from Ayatollah Sadr's Point of View), Nashr-i Danish, 15 (1362/1983), 22–43Google Scholar, I have heavily relied on his article in developing this part of the present paper.

¹²⁰ Sadr, al-Ussus, op. cit. pp. 69–81. Soroush, op. cit., 24–5

¹²¹ Sadr, al-Ussus, op. cit., 123–131

¹²² Sadr, al-Ussus, op. cit., 321–334. Soroush, op. cit., 25–6

¹²³ Sadr, al-Ussus, op. cit., 271–292

¹²⁴ Ibid., 381–433

¹²⁵ See Soroush, op. cit., ‘Mabni Mantiqi …, pages 31–42; Some other writers have tried to either critically asses Ayatollah's Sadr's approach to induction or defend his approach against Soroush's criticisms. While both groups have relied on Soroush's arguments, the latter have failed to develop cogent defence of the Ayatollah's views. See Khosrow-Panah, A., ‘mantiq-e Istiqra az Didgah Shahid Sadr’ (The Logic of Induction from Martyr Sadr's Point of View), Zehn, 18 (1383/2004) 29–58Google Scholar; Hadavi-Tehrani, M. M., ‘Mo‘zal-e Istiqra az Negah-e Shahid Sadr’ (The problem of Induction from Martyr Sadr's Point of View), Keyhan-e Andishe, 36(130–147)Google Scholar; Hadavi-Tehrani, M. M., ‘Naqqadi Mabani Manteqi Istiqra’ (Critique of the Logical Foundation of Induction), Keyhan-e Andishe 37, 60–70Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Dinani, I., Qava‘id Kolli Falsafi dar Falsafa Eslami (General Philosophical Principles in Islamic Philosophy) (Tehran: Mu'asses Entesharat Elmi va Farhangi, 3 vols 1365/1386)Google Scholar

¹²⁷ Ashtiyani, S. J., et al. , Montakhabati az Asar-e Hokamay-e Elahi Iran az Mir damad va Fenderski ta Asr-e Hazer (Tehran: L'Iran et la France Institut, 4 vols. 1350/1371)Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Jabri, Muḥammad ʻAbid, Arab-Islamic Philosophy (University of Texas Press, 1999)Google Scholar