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The Encircled Kingdom: The Saudi Anti-Communist Stance, 1958–67

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2022

Mohammad A. Al Tuwayjiri
Mohammad A. Al Tuwayjiri*
Affiliation:
Department of History, College of Arts, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
*
Email: moaltuwaijri@KSU.EDU.SA
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Abstract

This article evaluates Saudi Arabia's anti-Communist stance between 1958 and 1967, in the midst of the Cold War. It presents an alternative interpretation of how anti-Communism was framed as a struggle against Arab Nationalism and Zionism in the Middle East. Furthermore, it highlights the different perspectives on anti-Communist agitation provided in primary sources and Saudi historiography and offers fresh insight into the Saudis’ anti-Communist stance. The analysis shows that Saudi attitudes in the Cold War were dominated by a fear of the Soviet Communists that subsequently extended to all other secular ideologies. The article concludes that the Saudi strategy of anti-Communism was a crucial building block to curb the spread of Communism in the twentieth century.

Keywords

Saudi ArabiaAnti-CommunistCold WarArab NationalismZionism
Type
Critical Essay
Information
Review of Middle East Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , June 2021 , pp. 158 - 176
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Middle East Studies Association of North America, Inc.

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References

1 PRO, FO 1110/193, “Saudi Arabia: Reports on Communism,” (March 4, 1949); PRO, FO 371/ 133148, “Political relations between Saudi Arabia and Soviet Union,” (March 10, 1958); Matthiesen, Toby, “The Cold War and the Communist Party of Saudi Arabia, 1975–1991,” Journal of Cold War Studies 22.3 (August 2020): 33Google Scholar.

2 This phrase is inspired by David E. Long and Sebastian Maisel, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd ed. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 145–46.

3 Jamī Al-Miṣrī, Ḥạ̄dịr al-ʻalam al-islāmī wa-qaḍāyāh al-muʻāṣirah (Riyadh: Maktabat al-ʻUbaykān,1996), 92–99; Gregory Costache & Mājid Al-Turkī, ʻAhd al-malik saʻūd ru'yah sūvyītyah 1953–1964 AD (Dubai: al-Misbār, 2014), 30–44; ʻAbd al-Kārem Al-Ṭāhāwe, Al-mālik fāisal wa al-ālāqāt al-khārjīah al-saʿūdīyah (Cāiro: al- Dār al- Thaqāfīyah, 2003), 44–52.

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6 Robert Sullivan, “Saudi Arabia in International Politics,” The Review of Politics 32.4 (October 1970): 436–60; Sūaleh and Shāmbūn, Murājaʻah lil al-syāsah al-khārjīah al-mamlakah al-ʿarabīyah al-suʿūdīyah, by ‘abd Allāh al-alshʿl, markz drāsāt al-Khalīj wa al-Jazīrah al-ʿArabīah 4.15 (1978): 106–33; Ghāsy Rbābʿ, Al-wlyāt al-mtḥydh wa al-tiḥad al-swfyte wa al-ṣyraʿ fe al-sharq al-awsaṭ 1967–1987 (Aman: Dār al-Fekr, 1989): 22–31;‘Umar Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-Isrā’īl: dirāsah mud'amah bi-al-wathā’iq li-juhūd mūskū fī khalq isrā’īl (Al-Riyādh: Dār al-Saʻūdīyah lil-al-Nashr, 1967): 19–30; Nāṣir Al-Saʿīd, tārīkh al suʿūd, vol. 1 (Bayrūt: Ittiḥād Shaʿb al-Jazirah al-ʿArabīyah, 1984): 33.

7 Matthiesen “Saudi Arabia and the Cold War,” 1.

8 For instance look at: Nathan J. Citino, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC: Eisenhower, King Saʿūd, and the Making of U.S-Saudi Relations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 52–69; As'ad Abu Khalil, The Battle for Saudi Arabia: Royalty, Fundamentalism, and Global Power (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), 97–104; Rachel Bronson, Thicker Than Oil: America's Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 73–77; Robert Vitalis, America's Kingdom Mythmaking on the Saudi Oil Frontier (Stanford: California: Stanford University Press, 2007), 88–104.

9 Toby Jones, Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010), 82–93; Toby Matthiesen “Saudi Arabia and the Cold War,” in Salman's Legacy: The Dilemmas of a New Era in Saudi Arabia, ed. Madawi al-Rasheed (London: Hurst & Co, 2018), 217–33; Toby Matthiesen, “Migration, Minorities, and Radical Networks: Labour Movements and Opposition Groups in Saudi Arabia, 1950–1975,” International Review of Social History 59.3 (December 2014): 473–504; Matthiesen, Toby, ‘Shiʿi Historians in a Wahhabi State: Identity Entrepreneurs and the Politics of Local Historiography in Saudi Arabia,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 47.1 (2015): 25–45Google Scholar.

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11 Bsheer, “Counter-Revolutionary State,” 204. Although the terms “Anti-Communism” and “Anti-Left” were often used interchangeably,-and they certainly were intertwined in the Saudi literature – this essay will make a clear distinction between these two terms. Whereas “Anti-Communism” broadly denoted politics realistically structured along ideological factors to serve regime's security and legitimacy in the Cold War, “Anti-Left” referred here to ideational concerns from the State toward Anti-Western sentiments of Nasserism, Baathism, and Socialism during the Cold War.

12 Jamīl Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, (Al-Riyāḍ: Dār al-Saʻūdīyah lil-al-Nashr, 1967), 55; Khayr al-Dīn Al-Ziriklī, Shibh al-jazīrah fīʿahd al-malik ʿabd al-ʿazīz. 4 vols. (Bayrūt: Maṭābiʿ Dār al-Qalam, 1970),773–75; Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Al-Munjīd, ‘Aḥdīth ’an faiṣal wa- al-taẓamn al-islāmī (Bayrūt: Dār al-Kitāb al-Jadeed, 1974), 74; Sulṭān Sālim, Al-faiṣal malik fī fīkkr ūmmah (al-Qāhirah: Dār al-Turāth, 1976), 155–58 Al-Qanī, Moḥammed ’abd, “Al-khalīj bayna muqawimāt al-waḥdeh wa ṣirā al- quwā al-uẓmā,” Dirāsāt al-Khalīj wa al-Jazīrah al-’Arabīyah 20.5 (1979): 11–64Google Scholar.

13 Tāj Al-Sārhan, Al-siyāsah al-khārjīah al-saʿūdīyah fi ʿad al-malik fāiṣl bin ’abd alaziz (Al-khrṭom: al- Dār al-ʿAbiayah, 2000), 48–59; Mājed Al-Tūrkī, “Wāqʿ al-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-russiāh,” In ʿAl-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-russiāh, wāqʿ and taṭlʿāt, ed. Mājed Al-Tūrkī (Al-Riyādh: Markaz al-Iʻlām wa-al-Dirāsāt al-ʻArabīyah- al-Rūsīyah, 2006), 1–23; Muḥammad Al-Sayf. Abd allāh al-Ṭurayqī, ṣukhūr al-nifṭ wa-rimāl al-siyāsah. (Beirut: Riad el-Rayyes books, 2007), 33–36; Mohammed Al-Jazairi, “Saudi Arabia: A Diplomatic History, 1924–1964” (PhD diss., University of Utah, 1970), 98; ‘Abd Allah, muḥammad, Al-‘Abd al-muḥsin, Al-ālāqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-sūvyītyah 1926–1938 AD: wathā'iq sūvyītyah (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Malik ʻabd Al-ʻazīz al-ʻĀmmah, 1999), 33–41; Fāṭmah Al-Freiḥī, Al-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-maṣryah fiʿahd al-malik fāiṣl bin ‘abd al-‘azīz 1964–1975: dirāsāt, fī al-ʿāl-ālqāt al-siyāsīyah (Al-Riyādh: al-Dārah, 2012), 29–37; Maha Al-Rushayd, Mawqif al-mamlakah al-ʻarabīyah al-saʻūdīyah min ḥịlf Baghdād 1373–1377 AH/ 1954–1958 AD (Riyadh: Al-Jamʿīyah al-Tārīkhīyah al-Suʿūdīyah, 2018), 22–33.

14 ’Abd al-Qanī, “Al-khalīj bayna muqawimāt al-waḥdeh,”11–22; Sālim Sultān, Al-fāiṣāl, malikan fī fikr ummāh (al-Qāhirah: Dār al-Turāth, 1976), 46–61; Al-Sārhan, Al-siyāsah al-khārjīah al-saʿūdīyah, 55–61.

15 As one might expect, research in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf in general is fundamentally different from other countries. Public archives, such as King Abdul Aziz Foundation for Research and Archives (Dārah), are very difficult to access and hardly available to scholars. This explains why the bulk of primary sources are documents from the United States and the UK archives. However, due to the limitations of local primary sources in Saudi Arabia, some of the best-known books are included to reflect the nation-state's position, vision, and its strategy against Communism and the particular time period under investigation.

16 Youssef Choueiri, Modern Arab Historiography: Historical Discourse and the Nation-State, Revised edition, (London: Routledge, 2003), 33–39.

17 Al-Freiḥī, Al-āqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-maṣryah, 32–34;  Al-Jazairi, “Saudi Arabia: A Diplomatic History,” 98; Vitalis, America's Kingdom, 230.

18 Amīn Saʻīd, Amīn. Fayṣal al-ʿaẓīm: nashʾatuhū, sīratuhū, akhlāquhū, bayʿatuhū, iṣlāḥātuhū (Beirut: Maṭbaʻat Karm, 1965), 21–28; Al-Sārhan, Al-siyāsah al-khārjīah al-saʻūdīyah, 11; Al-Munjīd, ʻAḥdīth ’an faiṣal wa- al-taẓamn al-islāmī, 33.

19 CIA, FOIA, “Arab Nationalism As a Factor in The Middle East Situation,” (August 12, 1958), Document Number: 0001491625, at https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/document/0001491625, accessed September 1, 2019.

20 CIA, “Arab Nationalism as a Factor in The Middle East Situation,” 1958.

21 Nejla Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs: An Arab Assessment (London: Third World Centre for Research and Pub, 1981), 226–27.

22 FRUS, 1964–1968, Volume XXI, Near East Region; Arabian Peninsula, “Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Saudi Arabia,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 229, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d229, accessed on February 6, 2020; Choueiri, Arab Nationalism (2000), 193.

23 Muḥammad Ḥasanayn Haykal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972), 273.

24 ‘Adb un-Nabi- Al-ʿAkri, al-ṭanẓemāt al-ysāryh ƒi al-Jāzzerāh wa- al-khalīj al-ʿārabī. (Beirut: Dar al-Kunoz al-Adābiyyah, 2003), 44–46; Joseph Mann, “King Faisal and the Challenge of Nasser's Revolutionary Ideology,” Middle Eastern Studies 48.5 (August 2012): 762.

25 PRO, FCO 8/808 (BS 12/1), “Further criticism of Arab Oil Policy in Saudi Arabian press and Broadcasting Service,” (July 17, 1967).

26 PRO, FCO 8/808 (BS12/11), “Saudi Arabia during and after the Arab-Israeli War,” (August 8, 1967).

27 PRO, FO 371/163006 (BS 1011/1), “Annual Review of Saudi Arabia 1961,” (March 6, 1962).

28 Al-Miṣrī, Ḥạ̄dịr al-ʻalam al-islāmī, 44; Sūaleh and Shāmbūn, “Murājaʻah lil al-siyāsah al-khārjīah,” 119; Costache & Al-Turkī, ʻAahd al-malik saʻūd ru'yah sūvyītyah, 44.

29 Sālim, Al-faiṣal malik fī fīkkr ūmmah, 155.

30 Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, 55; Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-isrā’īl, 20–25; Al-Miṣrī, Ḥạ̄dịr al-ʻalam al-islāmī, 49–52.

31 Jörg Matthias Determann, Historiography in Saudi Arabia: Globalization and the State in the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), 55.

32 CIA, “Arab Nationalism as a Factor in The Middle East Situation,” 1958.

33 Al-Miṣrī, Ḥạ̄dịr al-ʻalam al-islāmī, 93–98.

34 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 151.

35 George Lenczowski, Soviet Advances in the Middle East, Foreign Affairs Study 2 (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1972), 55–57.

36 Al-Freihī, Al-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-maṣryah, 35.

37 Abdullah M. Sindi, “King Faisal and Pan-Islamism,” in King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia, ed. Willard A. Beling (Boulder: Westview Press, 1980), 189.

38 Ibid.

39 Saʻīd, Fayṣal, 22–31; Muḥammed Al-ʿUthaymīn, Al-adillah ʻalā buṭlān al-ishtirākīyah al-shuyūʻīyah, (‘Unayzah: Markz Muḥammed Al-ʿUthaymīn, 2009), 96.

40 Determann, Historiography in Saudi Arabia, 179–180.

41 AbuKhalil, The Battle for Saudi Arabia, 190.

42 Lacey, Robert, Inside the Kingdom: Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia (London: Hutchinson, 2009), 54Google Scholar.

43 Hegghammer, Thomas, Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 30Google Scholar.

44 James Piscatori, “Islamic Values and National Interest: The Foreign Policy of Saudi Arabia,” in Islam in Foreign Policy, ed. Adeed Dawisha (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 41; Muḥammad Ḥasanayn Haykal, Sphinx and Commissar: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Influence in the Arab World (London: Collins, 1978), 85–90.

45 The premise here is the establishment of IUM and MWL was mostly designed to curb the waves of Arab Nationalism and secularism in the Arab world, yet was also partly imbued with a sense of Anti-Communism globally.

46 Michael Farquhar, “The Islamic University of Medina since 1961: The Politics of Religious Mission and the Making of a Modern Salafi Pedagogy,” in Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina, and Al-Mustafa, eds Masooda Bano and Keiko Sakurai (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 21.

47 PRO, FCO 8/812, “Islamic World League,” (October 1968).

48 PRO, FCO 8/1201 (file NBS 18/1 PART A), “Islamic Diplomacy,” (October 31, 1968), Lacroix, Awakening Islam (2011), 41–42; Farquhar, “The Islamic University of Medina since 1961,” (2015), 21.

49 PRO, FCO 8/1201, “Islamic Diplomacy,” (October 31, 1968).

50 Aḥmad AlʻĪsā. Iṣlaḥ al-taʻlīm fī al-saʻūdīyah bayna ghīyāb al-ru'īyah al-sīyāsīyah wa-tawjus al-thaqāfah al-dīnīyah wa-ʻajz al-Idārah al-tarbawīyah. (Beirut: Dār al-Sāqī, 2009), 73–75.

51 Ibid.

52 FURS, 1964–1968, Volume XXI, Near East Region, “Arabian Peninsula,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 260 “Memorandum of Conversation,” at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d260, accessed on March 1, 2020.

53 ʿAl-Ṭāhāwe, Al-mālik fāisal, 179.

54 Sūaleh and Shāmbūn, “Murājaʻah lil al-siyāsah al-khārjīah,” 119.

55 Al-Sudairi, “Marx's Arabian Apostles,” 451.

56 Bsheer, “Counter-Revolutionary State,” 238.

57 CIA, “We Consider That in General the Estimates Concerning Saudi Arabia Contained in Since 20-2-58 Are Still Valid,” (11 August, 1958), Document Number: 0005622828, at https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0005622828.pdf, accessed January 11, 2020.

58 FRUS, 1964–1968, Volume XXI, Near East Region, “Arabian Peninsula,” eds. Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 530, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/pg_530, accessed March 3, 2020.

59 Ferris, Jesse, “Soviet Support for Egypt's Intervention in Yemen, 1962–1963,” Journal of Cold War Studies 10.4 (2008): 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Ibid., 27.

61 PRO, FO 371/162959 (File 1015), “Internal political situation, including revolution,” (June 16, 1962); Ferris, “Soviet Support for Egypt's Intervention in Yemen 1962–1963,” 27–30.

62 Jesse Ferris, Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 3.

63 FURS, 1964–1968, VOLUME XXI, Near East Region; “Arabian Peninsula,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 497, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/pg_497, accessed February 1, 2020.

64 Bruce Riedel, Kings and Presidents: Saudi Arabia and the United States Since FDR (Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press, 2018), 28–31; Matthiesen, “Saudi Arabia and the Cold War,” 217–33.

65 Gerges, Fawaz, “The Kennedy Administration and the Egyptian-Saudi Conflict in Yemen: Co-opting Arab Nationalism,” Middle East Journal 49.2 (1995): 294Google Scholar.

66 FRUS, 1961–1963, Volume XVII, Near East, 1961–1962, “Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, February 13, 1962,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 191, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v17/d191, accessed on December 26, 2019.

67 PRO, FCO 371/163008 (BS 1015/4), “Saudi Arabia: Information from Mr. H. Kern and Mr. St. John Armitage,” (December 17, 1962).

68 PRO, FCO 8/808 (BS12/2), “Arab Oil Embargo,” (August 8, 1967).

69 Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, 78.

70 Ibid.

71 FRUS, 1961–1963, Volume XVIII, Near East, 1962–1963, “Letter From President Kennedy to Crown Prince Faisal, March 1, 1963,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 172, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v18/d172, accessed on December 26, 2019.

72 FRUS, 1961–1963, Volume XVIII, Near East, 1962–1963, “Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy,” eds Daniel J. Lawler and Erin R. Mahan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 287 at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v18/d287, accessed on January 26, 2020.

73 Ẓahīr Yūnus Al-‘Aḍīmī, Al-saʻūdīyah wa taṭawūruhā al-ḥadīthah, (Matạ̄biʻ Al-Ḥalabūnī: Dimashq, 1965), 34–40; Al-ʿAjlānī, Munīr, Tārīkh mamlakah fī sīrah zaʻīm faysạl: malik al-mamlakah al-ʻarabīyah al-saʻūdiīyah wa-mmām al-muslimīn (Al-Riyāḍ: Maṭābiʿ al-Riyāḍ, 1968), 188–91.

74 Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-Isrā’īl, 30–33.

75 Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, 37.

76 Ibid., 74–77.

77 Sālim, Al-faiṣal malik fī fīkkr ūmmah, 154.

78 Al-Sārhan, Al-siyāsah al-khārjīah al-saʻūdīyah, 30–31.

79 Sālim, Al-faiṣal malik fī fīkkr ūmmah, 167–71; Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-Isrā’īl, 12–44; Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, 50–80; Saʻīd, Fayṣal, 23–34.

80 Stephen Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), 149.

81 Bsheer, “Counter-Revolutionary State,” 237.

82 Determann, Historiography in Saudi Arabia,157–62.

83 Saʻīd, Fayṣal, 44–54; Al-Ziriklī, Shibh al-jazīrah, 773–77.

84 Al-Rushayd, Mawqif al-mamlakah al-ʻarabīyah al-saʻūdīyah, 22–33.

85 Mohammed Al-Osaimi, The Politics of Persuasion: The Islamic Oratory of King Faisal Ibn Abdul Aziz (KFCRIS: Riyadh, 2000), 95

86 Al-Ziriklī, Shibh al-jazīrah, 773–75.

87 Nihad Al-Ghādrī, Al-tārīkh al-sirrī lil-al-ālāqāt al-shuyūʻīyah al-sihyūnīyah (Bayrūt: Dār al-Kātib al-ʿArabī, 1965), 40–57; Ghāsy, Al-wlyāt al- mtḥydh wa al-tiḥad al-swfyte, 44–60; Al-Jazairi, “Saudi Arabia: A Diplomatic History,” 98; Saʻīd, Fayṣal, 25–39; Mishel A. Al Mosaed, “The USSR and the Gulf States relations since the British Withdrawal from east of Suez in 1971” (Ph.D., diss, Denver University, 1990): 78–80

88 Al-‘Aḍīmī, al-saʻūdīyah wa taṭawūruhā al-ḥadīthah, 22–30; Al-Tūrkī, Wāqʿ al-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-russiāh, (2005), 7–11; Ghāsy, Al-wlyāt al- mtḥydh wa al-tiḥad al-swfyte, 44–60.

89 ‘Abd Aziz Ibn Baz, “Ḥukm min uṭālib bitaḥkīm al-mabādi' al-sūvyītyah,” fatwa No. 21, at https://binbaz.org.sa/fatwas/21/%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85-), accessed March 8, 2020.

90 Wikileaks Department of State Washington, 1973, “King Faisal Calls For Early Solution to Arab-Israeli Problem,” Wikileaks Cable: 1973STATE078404_b. at https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1973STATE078404_b.html, accessed June 8, 2019.

91 Kissinger, Henry, Years Of Upheaval (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Michael Joseph, 1982), 661Google Scholar.

92 PRO, FCO 8/808 (BS 12/1) “Further criticism of Arab Oil Policy in Saudi Arabian press and Broadcasting Service,” 1 (July 7, 1967).

93 PRO, FCO 8/639 (BK3/23) “Saudi Arabian Relations with the Gulf States,” (April 16, 1968); PCO, FCO 8/757 (BQ 2/1 PART B) “Saudi Arabian Political Affairs the U.K Policy & Relations,” (February 20, 1968).

94 PRO, FCO 8/808 (BS 12/1) “Further Criticism of Arab Oil Policy in Saudi Arabia,” (1967); PRO, FCO 8/762 (BS 3/1) “Saudi Arabian Press turns to Criticism of President Nasser,” (1967).

95 ’Abd al-Qanī, Al-khalīj bayna muqawimāt al-waḥdeh, 39.

96 Ibid., 39–40.

97 Ibid.

98 Amīn Mḥmūd, Al-Ittiḥād al-swfītī wa ta'asīs dawlah īsrā’īl (al-Qāhirah: “Ein li- al-Dirāsāt wa al-Buḥth al-Insānīah al-Ijtimāʿīyah, 2013), 88–89.

99 Ibid., 88–89.

100 Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, 37–41; Ẓahīr, Al-saʻūdīyah wa taṭawūruhā al-ḥadīthah, 102–19; Al-Ziriklī, Shibh al-jazīrah,773–75; Al-Munjīd, ʻAḥdīth ’an faiṣal wa- al-taẓamn al-isāmi, 34; Al-Osaimi, The Politics of Persuasion, 95.

101 Sālim, Al-faiṣal malik fī fīkkr ūmmah, 154–56; Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-isrā’īl, 60–66; Al-freiḥī, Al-ālqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-maṣryah, 30–46.

102 Al-Munjīd, ʻAḥdīth ’an faiṣal wa- al-taẓamn al-islāmī, 34.

103 Ibid.

104 Ibid. 34–35.

105 Ḥleeq, Mūskū wa-isrā’īl, 14.

106 Ibid., 22–33.

107 For more detail see for example: Abir, Mordechai, Oil, Power and Politics: Conflict in Arabia, the Red Sea and the Gulf (London: Frank Cass, 1974), 35–36Google Scholar; Yizraeli, Sarah, Politics and Society in Saudi Arabia: The Crucial Year of Years of Development 1960–1982 (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 2012), 57–71Google Scholar; Kechichian, Joseph A., Faysal: Saudi Arabia's King for All Seasons (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008), 184–90Google Scholar.

108 Posner, Gerald, Secrets of the Kingdom: The Inside Story of the Saudi- U.S. Connection (New York: Random House, 2005), 45Google Scholar.

109 Mājid Al-Turkī, Al-ālāqāt al-saʻūdīyah al-rūsīyah fī dạw' al-mutaghayyirāt al-iqlīmīyah wa-al-dawlīyah 1926–2007 AD (Riyadh: Markaz al-Iʻlām wa-al-Dirāsāt al-ʻArabīyah- al-Rūsīyah, 2015), 314–20.

110 Ibid., 318–24.

111 Al-Ḥujilān, Al-dawlah wa al-thawrāh, 77.

112 Long and Maisel, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 145–46.

113 Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, 219.

114 Determann, Historiography in Saudi Arabia, 57.

115 Hegghammer, Jihad in Saudi Arabia, 38.