Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-xxrs7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-19T09:03:24.269Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The UK Women's Cohort Study: comparison of vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2007

JE Cade*
Affiliation:
Nutritional Epidemiology Group, University of Leeds, 71–75 Clarendon Road, Leeds, LS2 9PL, UK
VJ Burley
Affiliation:
Nutritional Epidemiology Group, University of Leeds, 71–75 Clarendon Road, Leeds, LS2 9PL, UK
DC Greenwood
Affiliation:
Nutritional Epidemiology Group, University of Leeds, 71–75 Clarendon Road, Leeds, LS2 9PL, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Email j.e.cade@leeds.ac.uk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Background:

This paper describes the development of the UK Women's Cohort Study and presents cohort baseline characteristics.

Methods:

In total, 35 372 women, aged 35–69 years at recruitment, were selected to ensure a wide range of dietary intakes. Diet was assessed by a 217-item food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Detailed lifestyle information was collected by postal questionnaire. Vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters were compared.

Results:

The cohort women are mainly white, well-educated, middle-class and married with children. They are health-conscious with only 11% current smokers and 58% taking dietary supplements. Twenty-eight per cent of subjects self-report as being vegetarian and 1% as vegan. However, only 18% are defined as 'vegetarian' from the FFQ. Fat provides 32% of energy; vitamin and mineral intakes are high, with a broad range of intakes. Meat-eaters are older, with a higher body mass index (BMI) and the lowest intakes of carbohydrate, fibre, vitamin C, folate, iron and calcium. Other fish-eaters are similar to vegetarians. Vegetarians have the lowest intakes of protein, fat and saturated fat. Oily fish-eaters have the lowest BMI; are the least likely to smoke or use full-fat milk; and are the most likely to use dietary supplements and consume the most fruit and vegetables. Oily fish-eaters have the highest total energy intake and vegetarians the lowest. Semi-skimmed milk, bread, potatoes, wine, bananas and muesli are important contributors to energy for all groups.

Conclusion:

A large cohort of middle-aged women has been created encompassing a wide range of different eating patterns, including diets currently of interest to research into protection against cancer and coronary heart disease. Participants will be followed up to study the effects of different food and nutrient intakes on long-term health outcomes.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2004

References

1Ascherio, A, Rimm, EB, Giovannucci, EL, Spiegelman, D, Stampfer, M, Willett, WC. Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow up study in the United States. British Medical Journal 1996; 313: 8490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2Bandera, EV, Freudenheim, JL, Marshall, JR, Zielezny, M, Priore, RL, Brasure, J, et al. Diet and alcohol consumption and lung cancer risk in the New York State Cohort (United States). Cancer Causes & Control 1997; 8: 828–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3Elmstahl, S, Holmqvist, O, Gullberg, B, Johansson, U, Berglund, G. Dietary patterns in high and low consumers of meat in a Swedish cohort study. Appetite 1999; 32: 191206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4Goldbohm, RA, van den Brandt, PA, van't Veer, P, Brants, HA, Dorant, E, Sturmans, F, et al. A prospective cohort study on the relation between meat consumption and the risk of colon cancer. Cancer Research 1994; 54: 718–23.Google ScholarPubMed
5Key, TJ, Thorogood, M, Appleby, PN, Burr, ML. Dietary habits and mortality in 11,000 vegetarians and health conscious people: results of a 17 year follow up. British Medical Journal 1996; 313: 775–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6Mills, PK, Beeson, WL, Phillips, RL, Fraser, GE. Bladder cancer in a low risk population: results from the Adventist Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 1991; 133: 230–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7Potter, JD, Sellers, TA, Folsom, AR, McGovern, PG. Alcohol, beer, and lung cancer in postmenopausal women. The Iowa Women's Health Study. Annals of Epidemiology 1992; 2: 587–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8Riboli, E. Nutrition and cancer: background and rationale of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Annals of Oncology 1992; 3: 783–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Department of Health. Nutritional Aspects of the Development of Cancer. Report of the Working Group on Diet and Cancer of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy. Report on Health and Social Subjects No. 48. London: The Stationery Office, 1998.Google Scholar
10Kaaks, R, Riboli, E. The role of multi-centre cohort studies in studying the relation between diet and cancer. Cancer Letters 1997; 114: 263–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Hankin, JH. Role of nutrition in women's health: diet and breast cancer. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1993; 93: 994–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12Margetts, BM, Nelson, M. Design Concepts in Nutritional Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13Greenwood, DC, Cade, JE, Draper, A, Barrett, JH, Calvert, C, Greenhalgh, A. Seven unique food consumption patterns identified among women in the UK Women's Cohort Study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 54: 314–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14Key, TJ, Fraser, GE, Thorogood, M, Appleby, PN, Beral, V, Reeves, G, et al. Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 70: 516S–24S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Draper, A, Lewis, J, Malhotra, N, Wheeler, E. The energy and nutrient intakes of different types of vegetarian: a case for supplements? [published erratum appears in British Journal of Nutrition 1993; 70(3): 812] British Journal of Nutrition 1993; 69: 319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Sanders, TA, Reddy, S. Vegetarian diets and children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 1176S–81S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. Mortality Statistics for 1991. Series DH2 No. 18. London: The Stationery Office, 1993.Google Scholar
18Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. 1989 Cancer Registrations, England and Wales. Series MBI No. 22. London: The Stationery Office, 1994.Google Scholar
19Woodhouse, A, Calvert, C, Cade, J. The UK Women's Cohort Study: background and obtaining local ethical approval. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1997; 56: 64A.Google Scholar
20Riboli, E, Kaaks, R. The EPIC Project: rationale and study design. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International Journal of Epidemiology 1997; 26(Suppl. 1): S6–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21Cade, J, McClelland, I, Woodhouse, A. What are vegetarian women eating? Appetite 1995; 24: 267.Google Scholar
22Calvert, C, Cade, J, Barrett, JH, Woodhouse, A. Using cross-check questions to address the problem of mis-reporting of specific food groups on food frequency questionnaires. UKWCS Steering Group. United Kingdom Women's Cohort Study Steering Group. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997; 51: 708–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23Spence, M, Cade, JE, Burley, VJ, Greenwood, DC. Ability of the UK Women's Cohort food frequency questionnaire to rank dietary intakes: a preliminary validation study. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2002; 61: 117A.Google Scholar
24Holland, B, Welch, AA, Unwin, ID, Buss, DH, Paul, AA, Southgate, DAT. McCance & Widdowson's The Composition of Foods. London: Royal Society of Chemistry and Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1991.Google Scholar
25Willett, WC. Convergence of philosophy and science: the third international congress on vegetarian nutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 70: 434S–8S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26Rose, D, Pevalin, D. The National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification: Unifying Official and Sociological Approaches to the Conceptualisation and Measurement of Social Class. Colchester: Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex, 2001.Google Scholar
27Bravo, Y, Greenwood, DC, Cade, JE. The impact of social class on a healthy diet: analysis from the UK Women's Cohort Study. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2002; 61: 142A.Google Scholar
28Riboli, E, Hunt, KJ, Slimani, N, Ferrari, P, Norat, T, Fahey, M, et al. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): study populations and data collection. Public Health Nutrition 2002; 5: 1113–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29Davey, GK, Spencer, EA, Appleby, PN, Allen, NE, Knox, KH, Key, TJ. EPIC–Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutrition 2003; 6: 259–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30Frentzel-Beyme, R, Chang-Claude, J. Vegetarian diets and colon cancer: the German experience. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 1143S–52S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31Fraser, GE. Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 70: 532S–8S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32Kaaks, R, Riboli, E. Validation and calibration of dietary intake measurements in the EPIC project: methodological considerations. International Journal of Epidemiology 1997; 26: 15S–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33Schatzkin, A, Subar, A, Thompson, FE, Harlan, LC, Tangrea, J, Hollenbeck, AR, et al. Design and serendipity in establishing a large cohort with wide dietary intake distributions – the National Institutes of Health–American Association of Retired Persons Diet and Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 2001; 154: 1119–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34 Office for National Statistics. 2001 Census. [online]. Available at http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/default.asp. Accessed 13 April 2003.Google Scholar
35Knutsen, SF. Lifestyle and the use of health services. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 1171S–5S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36Henderson, L, Gregory, J, Swan, G. The National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64 years. Vol. 1 Norwich: HMSO, 2002.Google Scholar
37Jaggers, C, Cade, J, Greenwood, D, Greenhalgh, A. Who are the vegetarians? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2001; 60: 5A.Google Scholar
38Palmer, ME, Haller, C, McKinney, PE, Klein-Schwartz, W, Tschirgi, A, Smolinske, SC, et al. Adverse events associated with dietary supplements: an observational study. Lancet 2003; 361: 101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Gregory, J, Foster, K, Tyler, H, Wiseman, M. The Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Adults. London: HMSO, 1990.Google Scholar
40Cade, JE, Burley, VJ, Greenwood, DC. A comparison of fish eaters with other meat eaters and vegetarians taking part in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2001; 60: 228A.Google Scholar
41Fraser, GE, Welch, A, Luben, R, Bingham, SA, Day, NE. The effect of age, sex, and education on food consumption of a middle-aged English cohort – EPIC in East Anglia. Preventive Medicine 2000; 30: 2634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42Hjartaker, A, Lund, E. Relationship between dietary habits, age, lifestyle, and socio-economic status among adult Norwegian women. The Norwegian Women and Cancer Study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1998; 52: 565–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Kromhout, D, Bloemberg, BP, Feskens, EJ, Hertog, MG, Menotti, A, Blackburn, H. Alcohol, fish, fibre and antioxidant vitamins intake do not explain population differences in coronary heart disease mortality. International Journal of Epidemiology 1996; 25: 753–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Morris, MC, Manson, JE, Rosner, B, Buring, JE, Willett, WC, Hennekens, CH. Fish consumption and cardiovascular disease in the Physicians' Health Study: a prospective study. American Journal of Epidemiology 1995; 142: 166–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Albert, CM, Hennekens, CH, O'Donnell, CJ, Ajani, UA, Carey, VJ, Willett, WC, et al. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. Journal of the American Medical Association 1998; 279: 23–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46Marckmann, P, Gronbaek, M. Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality. A systematic review of prospective cohort studies. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 53: 585–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Tretli, S, Gaard, M. Lifestyle changes during adolescence and risk of breast cancer: an ecologic study of the effect of World War II in Norway. Cancer Causes & Control 1996; 7: 507–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Lund, E, Bonaa, KH. Reduced breast cancer mortality among fishermen's wives in Norway. Cancer Causes & Control 1993; 4: 283–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49Braga, C, La Vecchia, C, Negri, E, Franceschi, S, Parpinel, M. Intake of selected foods and nutrients and breast cancer risk: an age- and menopause-specific analysis. Nutrition & Cancer 1997; 28: 258–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50Caygill, CPJ, Hill, MJ. Fish n– 3 fatty acids and human colorectal and breast cancer mortality. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 1995; 4: 329–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51Cade, J, Thompson, R, Burley, V, Warm, D, Margetts, B. Consensus document on the development, validation and utilisation of food frequency questionnaires. Public Health Nutrition 2002; 5: 567–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar