1. Veysey, Laurence, “Who's a Professional? Who Cares?” Reviews in American History, 3 (1975), 419–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Veysey, , “The Plural Organized World of the Humanities,” in Oleson, Alexandra and Voss, John, eds., The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860–1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 57–63.Google Scholar

2. Wall Street Journal, “Culture Shock Affects Steelworker Who Switched to White-Collar Job,” 06 1, 1983Google Scholar; “Trading Bell,” 11 22, 1983Google Scholar; “In Wake of Alicia, Adjusters Face Snakes, Heat, Testy Homeowner,” 08 30, 1983Google Scholar; “A Fish-and-Game Man with a Ph.D. Battles for Wyoming Wildlife,” 06 21, 1983Google Scholar; “TV Cameraman's Job is a Stimulating Blend of the Trivial and Scary,” 06 22, 1983Google Scholar; “A University is Hoping to Clean Up the Image of a Very Old Profession,” 03 24, 1983Google Scholar; “Big 8 Accounting Firm is Blamed by Small One for All of Its Troubles,” 07 28, 1983Google Scholar; “Lawyers' Public Image is Dreadful, Spurring Concern by Attorneys,” 10 11, 1983.Google Scholar

3. Wemyss, Mary C., The Professional Aunt, (Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1910).Google Scholar

4. Flexner, Abraham, “Is Social Work a Profession?” Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections (New York: Columbia University Press, 1915), p. 577.Google Scholar

5. See “The Ethics of the Professions and of Business,” American Academy of Political and Social Science: Annals, 101 (05, 1922), 1–300Google Scholar; Taeusch, Carl Frederick, Professional and Business Ethics (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1926)Google Scholar. A significant audience in America read Tawney, R. H., The Acquisitive Society (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1920)Google Scholar; and Sidney, and Webb, Beatrice, “Special Supplement on Professional Associations,” in The New Statesman, 9 (04 21, 1917), 1–48.Google Scholar

6. For example, Hall-Quest, Alfred L., Professional Secondary Education in Teachers Colleges (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925)Google Scholar; Coale, Willis B., The Professional Needs of Teachers of English (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1928)Google Scholar; Boardman, Charles Willis, Professional Tests as Measures of Teaching Efficiency in High School (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928)Google Scholar; Clarke, Helen, The Professional Training of the Hospital Dietitian (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934).Google Scholar

7. Lewis, Sinclair, Arrowsmith, (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1925)Google Scholar; The Novels of Dashiell Hammett, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), pp. 293–440.Google Scholar

8. Sutherland, Edwin H., The Professional Thief: By a Professional Thief (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1937)Google Scholar; Becker, Howard S., “The Professional Dance Musician and his Audience,” American Journal of Sociology, 57 (09 1951), 136–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Becker, Howard S., Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963)Google Scholar; Klockars, Carl B., The Professional Fence (New York: Free Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Hayano, David M., Poker Faces: The Life and Work of Professional Card Players (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).Google Scholar

9. Mencken, H. L., The American Language (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1937), pp. 272–3Google Scholar; , N. R. L., “The Title Professor,” American Speech, 3 (10 1927), 27Google Scholar; Hanson, Charles L., “‘Professor’ Again,” American Speech, 3 (02 1928), 256–7Google Scholar; Meredith, Mamie, “‘Professor’ or ‘Professional’?” American Speech, 9 (02 1934), 71–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10. Roth, Philip, The Professor of Desire (New York: Farraf, Straus & Giroux, 1977).Google Scholar

11. Dewey, John, “Culture and Professionalism in Education,” School and Society, 18 (10 13, 1923), 424.Google Scholar

12. See Karl, Barry D., “Philanthropy, Policy Planning, and the Bureaucratization of the Democratic Ideal,” Daedalus, 105 (Fall 1976), 129–49Google Scholar; Karl, Barry D., Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).Google Scholar

13. Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, “Doctors and Lawyers: A Comment on the Theory of the Professions,” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 1 (1964), 17–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Heinz, John B. and Laumann, Edward O., Chicago Lawyers: The Social Structure of the Bar (New York: Russell Sage Foundation & American Bar Foundation, 1982).Google Scholar

14. Starr, Paul, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 78–144Google Scholar; Rosen, George, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875–1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnson, Terence J., Professions and Power (London: Macmillan, 1972), p. 35.Google Scholar

15. Baker, Donald G., “The Lawyer in Popular Fiction,” Journal of Popular Culture, 3 (1969–1970), 493–516CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Auerbach, Jerold S., Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Bellamy, Edward, Looking Backward, 2000–1887 (Riverside Edition: Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin Company, n.d.), pp. 202–5Google Scholar; Roemer, Kenneth M., The Obsolete Necessity: America in Utopian Writings, 1888–1900, (Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1976), pp. 145–6.Google Scholar

16. Reingold, Nathan, “Definitions and Speculations: The Professionalization of Science in America in the Nineteenth Century,” in Oleson, Alexandra and Brown, Sanborn C., eds., The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies from Colonial Times to the Civil War (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 34Google Scholar; Rosenberg, Charles, “Toward an Ecology of Knowledge: On Discipline, Context, and History,” in Oleson and Voss, Organization and Knowledge (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 440–55Google Scholar. For a critical response see Haskell, Thomas L., “Are Professors Professional?” Journal of Social History, 14 (Spring 1981), 485–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17. There is no adequate review of this literature. See Ben-David, Joseph, “Professions in the Class System of Everyday Society,” Current Sociology, 12 (1963–1964), 247–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar. More recently, see Ramsey, Matthew, “Review Essay: History of a Profession, Annales Style: The Work of Jacques Leonard,” Journal of Social History, 17 (Winter 1983), 319–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. On gender, for example, see Brumberg, Joan Jacobs and Tomes, Nancy, “Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians,” Reviews in American History, 10 (06 1982), 275–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rosenberg, Rosalind, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982)Google Scholar. On selective bias in higher education, see Wechsler, Harold S., The Qualified Student: a History of Selective College Admission in America (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977)Google Scholar; Synnott, Marcia Graham, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900–1970 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979)Google Scholar. See also Jencks, Christopher et al. , Who Gets Ahead: The Determinants of Economic Success in America (New York: Basic Books, 1979).Google Scholar

19. Mills, C. Wright, White Collar: The American Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), pp. 112–41Google Scholar; Larson, Magali Sarfatti, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977)Google Scholar; Freidson, Eliot, Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1970)Google Scholar; Collins, Randall, The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification (New York: Academic Press, 1979)Google Scholar; Ohmann, Richard, English in America: A Radical View of the Profession (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976)Google Scholar. See also Gouldner, Alvin W., The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

20. From the Frankfurt School, see Adorno, Theodor W., “The Sociology of Knowledge and Its Consciousness,” in Arato, Andrew & Gebhardt, Eike, eds., The Essential Frankfurt School Reader (New York: Urizen Books, 1978), pp. 452–65Google Scholar; Habermas, Jurgen, “Technology and Science as ‘Ideology,’” Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science, and Politics (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), pp. 81–127Google Scholar. Lasch, Christopher, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Beseiged (New York: Basic Books, 1977).Google Scholar

21. Lears, T. J. Jackson, “From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880–1930,” in Fox, Richard Wightman and Lears, T. J. Jackson, eds., The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880–1980 (New York: Pantheon, 1983), pp. 1–38.Google Scholar

22. See Parsons, Talcott, Essays in Sociological Theory, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1954), pp. 34–49, 370–85Google Scholar; Parsons, , The Social System (New York: Free Press, 1951), pp. 335–48, 428–79.Google Scholar

23. For an interpretative use of the model, see Abbott, Andrew, “Status and Status Strain in the Professions,” American Journal of Sociology, 86 (1981), 819–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

24. For a comment on stylistic discipline in the social sciences, see Merton, Robert K., Social Theory and Social Structure, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1957), pp. 13–14.Google Scholar

25. Wittgenstein, Ludwig, Philosophical Investigations, trans., Anscombe, G. E. (New York: Macmillan, 1953), p. 8.Google Scholar

26. Numerous editions of American dictionaries – Webster, Worcester, Century, Funk & Wagnalls – appeared regularly in nineteenth-century America, in addition to dictionaries of Americanisms – Bartlett, DeVere, Farmer – and slang. For historians, these editions constitute a useful but seldom consulted source for investigation.

27. On vaudeville, see McLean, Albert F. Jr., American Vaudeville as Ritual (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1965)Google Scholar. Barth, Gunther, City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980)Google Scholar describes the popular reception of professional performances.

28. Sutherland, , Professional Thief.Google Scholar

29. See Pellegrino, Edmund D., “The Sociological Impact of Twentieth-Century Therapeutics,” and Charles E. Rosenberg, “The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America,” in Vogel, Morris J. and Rosenberg, Charles E., eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 245–66, 3–25.Google Scholar

30. The most recent study is Starr, American Medicine.

31. This literature is substantial. For some landmarks see Wiebe, Robert H., The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967)Google Scholar; Israel, Jerry, ed., Building the Organization Society: Essays on Associational Activities in Modern America (New York: Free Press, 1972)Google Scholar; Skowronek, Stephen, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Kirschner, Don S., “‘Publicity Properly Applied’: The Selling of Expertise in America, 1900–1929,” American Studies, 19 (Spring 1978), 65–78Google Scholar. In an influential work, Haskell, Thomas, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association and the Nineteenth Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977)Google Scholar developed a modified Parsonian point of view. In criticism of the direction of the historiography see Hobson, Wayne K., “Professionals, Progressives and Bureaucratization: a Reassessment,” The Historian, 39 (08 1977), 639–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a recent different perspective on the era, see Macleod, David I., Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and Their Forerunners, 1870–1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983).Google Scholar

32. Mead quoted in Diner, Steven J., “George Herbert Mead's Ideas on Women and Careers: A Letter to his Daughter-in-Law, 1920,” Signs, 4 (1978), 408–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Diner, Steven J., “Department and Discipline: The Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago, 1892–1920,” Minerva, 13 (Winter 1975), 514–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rosenberg, , Beyond Separate Spheres, pp. 137–8.Google Scholar

33. In addition to Park's own essays, my interpretation of Park draws on Matthews, Fred H., Quest for an American Sociology: Robert E. Park and the Chicago School (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1977).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

34. Historians of anthropology are currently examining this theme in English ethnography. See Parssinen, Carol Ann, “Social Explorers and Social Scientists: The Dark Continent of Victorian Ethnography,” in Ruby, Jay, ed., A Crack in the Mirror: Reflexive Perspectives in Anthropology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), pp. 205–17Google Scholar; Stocking, George W. Jr., “The Ethnographer's Magic: Fieldwork in British Anthropology from Tylor to Malinowski,” in Stocking, George W. Jr., ed., Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), pp. 70–120Google Scholar; Clifford, James, “On Ethnographic Authority,” Representations, 1 (Spring 1983), 118–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

35. Freud, Sigmund, “Analysis Terminable and Interminable,” in Rieff, Philip, ed., Therapy and Technique (New York: Collier Books, 1963), pp. 268, 266.Google Scholar