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Foreign Elements in Etruscan Arms and Armour: 8th to 3rd centuries B.C.1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 September 2014

P. F. Stary
P. F. Stary
Affiliation:
Ellaina Macnamara Memorial Scholar
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Extract

In January 1974 I started my doctoral thesis supervised by Prof. O.-H. Frey (Marburg an der Lahn) at the University of Hamburg, on the subject: ‘Arms, armour and warfare in Central Italy during the Iron Age, ninth to sixth century B.C.’. During the work on this subject, it soon became evident that a detailed treatment would not be possible if the work were restricted to the geographical region of Italy. Many questions and problems appeared, the answers to which could not be found in Italy only, but in other geographical areas, surrounding more or less the whole Mediterranean and the foothills of the Alps. These connections and influences in Etruria determined to a great extent the historical development of the Central Italian military systems. Of course these military influences came at different times and from different sources, with Etruria taking a key position because of its extraordinarily favourable geographical, topographical and other natural conditions. Therefore Etruria had a special importance in the taking up and passing on of foreign elements of warfare from the Iron Age onwards, which influenced and even determined the military history of this region during the whole first millennium B.C. On the other hand the new military technology, which mostly reached Etruria first, was passed on after a delay from Etruria to Latium in the south and to Umbria in the east, then to the Adriatic Coast and to northern Italy and finally in a modified and selected form also beyond the Alps, to the under-developed peoples of Central Europe.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 45 , December 1979 , pp. 179 - 206
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 1979

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76. For the Near Eastern influences see note 110. For the problems of the Orientalizing period in Etruria and the historical process in the Near East see Strøm op. cit. (note 14).

77. See note 36.

78. These developments are shown in detail in my book (note 2).

79. For the helmets with semicircular cap see Camporeale op. cit. (note 13).

80. Hencken op. cit. (note 9) 138, fig. 107; 139, fig. 108; 140, fig. 109.

81. See note 45.

82. For the kardiophylakes see note 15.

83. For the round shields see notes 13–14.

84. The Etruscan daggers have not yet been studied.

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103. See note 70.

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105. See v. Hase op. cit. (note 5) 10, notes 1–3; 18, note 1.

106. For chariot-warfare in the Near East see note 72.

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115. Kossack op. cit. (note 34) 93 ff.

116. For the Hallstatt-daggers from North Italy see de Marinis op. cit. (note 34).

117. For the warrior-graves from Sesto Calende see Ghislanzoni op. cit. (note 34).

118. For the development of Greek arms, armour and warfare see Snodgrass op. cit. (note 59) 48 ff.

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121. See note 118.

122. For the greaves see Snodgrass op. cit. (note 119) 86 ff.

123. For the bell-corslets see Snodgrass op. cit. (note 119) 71 ff; Snodgrass op. cit. (note 57) 31 ff.

124. For the palstaves with quadrangular blade see note 85.

125. For the phalanx-tactics see Snodgrass op. cit. (note 120) 110 ff.

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128. See note 36.

129. For the Greek colonies in Southern Italy see note 111.

130. For Etruscan ships see note 20; for Greek warships see Morrison, J. S., Williams, R. T., Greek Oared Ships 900–322 B.C. (1968)Google Scholar. For the Greek cavalry see Anderson, J. K., Ancient Greek Horsemanship (1961)Google Scholar; Greenhalgh, P. A. L., Early Greek Warfare (1973) 40 ff.Google Scholar

131. Diod Sic. XII. 64, Livy IV. 29.

132. Minto, A., Populonia (1943) 127Google Scholar, fig. 44.

133. Minto op. cit. 118 ff; pl. 26.

134. Athenaeus IV. 8. 182; Sil. Ital. VIII. 488; Pliny, Nat. Hist. VII. 201.

135. See Connolly, P., Die römische Armee (1976) 12Google Scholar.

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137. For the machaira see Schüle, W., Die Meseta-Kulturen der Iberischen Halbinsel (1969) 113Google Scholar.

138. For the Negau helmets see note 17.

139. For Etruscan influences in Rome and Latium see McCartney and Gjerstad (notes 30–31); also Snodgrass (note 120) 119 ff.

140. See note 32.

141. For the military development in Picenum see Lollini, D. G., in Popoli e Civiltà dell'Italia Antica 5 (1976) 170 ffGoogle Scholar; for the hoplite shield from Fabriano see Stucchi op. cit. (note 32).

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143. For the Negau helmets see note 17.

144. For the military development in the Abruzzi see note 113.

145. For the development of the Samnite warfare see Weege op. cit. (note 114).

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147. See Minto op. cit. (note 132) pl. 59–60.

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149. Cristofani op. cit. fig. 7–9.

150. Boitani, F., Cataldi, M., Le Città Etrusche (1974)Google Scholar cover-figure; 173.

151. StEtr 6, 1932, 509 ffGoogle Scholar with pl. 25; 28–29.

152. StEtr 6, 1932Google Scholar, pl. 28.

153. For the written sources on the Celts in Italy see Peyre, C., L'armement defensif des Gaulois en Emilie et en Romagne: respectives historiques, Studi Romagnoli 14, 1965, 81 ffGoogle Scholar. For the historical background Cary, M., A History of Rome (1954) 88 ffGoogle Scholar; Altheim, F., Römische Geschichte 1 (1956) 60 ffGoogle Scholar; Kiechle, F., Römische Geschichte 1 (1967) 49 ff.Google Scholar

154. For the Celto-Italic wars see Livy V. 33 ff.

155. Livy X. 21 ff.

156. Polybius II. 28.

157. Celtic finds from Italy: Mansuelli, G. A., in: L'Emilia prima dei Romani (1961) 277Google Scholar; Bandinelli, R. Bianchi, Giuliano, A., Etrusker und Italiker vor der römischen Herrschaft (1974) 59 ffGoogle Scholar; Albizzati, C., Historia 7, 1933, 570 ffGoogle Scholar; Peyre, C., Revue Archéologique NS 1969, 165 ffGoogle Scholar; Exhibition catalogue Rome: I Galli e Italia (1978). For Celtic warrior-equipment see U. Osterhaus, Die Bewaffnung der Kelten zur Frühlatènezeit nördlich der Alpen (in the press).

158. For Celtic weapons from Italy see note 23.

159. This type of helmet is studied by Schaaff, U., Jahrb. RGZM 20, 1973, 81 ff.Google Scholar

160. See Schaaff, , Jahrb. RGZM 21, 1974, 149 ff.Google Scholar

161. See distribution-maps: Schaaff op. cit. (note 160).

162. Warrior-slabs from Castiglioncello: StEtr 17, 1943Google Scholar, pl. 28.

163. See Montelius, O., La civilisation primitive en Italie 2 (1904)Google Scholar pl. 205.

164. See Paribeni, R., Statuine di guerrieri galli, Ausonia 2, 1907, 279 ff.Google Scholar

165. Schaaff op. cit. (note 160) 184 ff.

166. For Celtic helmets with Waldalgesheim ornaments see Jacobsthal, P., Early Celtic Art (1944)Google Scholar pl. 83, 143; Rampinelli, A., Sibrium 8, 1964–1966, 61 ffGoogle Scholar with fig. 1–3.

167. See Robinson, H. Russell, The Armour of Imperial Rome (1975) 13 ff.Google Scholar

168. See notes 162–164.

169. Catalogue: Padova Preromana (1976) pl. 81–82; Frey, , Germania 46, 1968Google Scholar, pl. 40, 1.

170. Peyre, , Studi Romagnoli 14, 1965, 96Google Scholar fig. 8; 97 fig. 9.

171. Stele from Bormio: Pauli, L., Germania 51, 1973, 85 ffGoogle Scholar; Vonwiller, F. R., in: Oblatio. Festschr. A. Calderini (1971) 691 ff.Google Scholar

172. For Celtic shields see Déchelette, J., Manuel d'Archéologie Préhist., Celt., et Gallo-Romaine 2, 3 (1914) 1167 ffGoogle Scholar; for a shield from Dürrnberg in Austria see Pauli op. cit. (note 171) 92 f with fig. 2.

173. Vouga, P., La Tène (1927)Google Scholar pl. 16–18.

174. Becker, C. J., Acta Archeologica 19, 1948, 145 ffGoogle Scholar; Krämer, W., Prähist. Zeitschr. 34–35, 1949–1950, 354 ff.Google Scholar

175. Kimmig, W., Germania 24, 1940, 106 ffGoogle Scholar; Maier, F., Germania 51, 1973, 471 ff.Google Scholar

176. See note 44.

177. See exhibition catalogue Mainz: Krieger und Salzherren (1970) pl. 80.

178. For instance on the Arnoaldi, Situla, Lucke, W., Frey, O.-H., Die Situla in Providence, Rhode Island (1962)Google Scholar pl. 63.

179. Unpublished. Rome, Villa Giulia 44434–35.

180. See Russell Robinson op. cit. (note 167) 164 ff; Connolly op. cit. (note 135) 10; 12–13; 18; 34.

181. Ovid, Met. IV. 428; Inedit. Vat. III., Hermes 27, 1892, 121Google ScholarPubMed; Polybius VI. 25; Sallust, Cat. 51.37–39.