Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T14:26:46.406Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A review on toxoplasmosis in humans and animals from Egypt

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 October 2019

I. E. Abbas ,
I. Villena  and
J. P. Dubey Open the ORCID record for J. P. Dubey [Opens in a new window]
I. E. Abbas
Affiliation:
Parasitology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura35516, Egypt
I. Villena
Affiliation:
Reims Champagne Ardenne University, UFR Médecine, EA 7510 ESCAPE, Parasitology Laboratory, 51 Rue Cognacq Jay, 51096Reims, France
J. P. Dubey*
Affiliation:
United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD20705-2350, USA
*
Author for correspondence: J. P. Dubey, E-mail: jitender.dubey@ars.usda.gov
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The present paper summarizes prevalence, epidemiology and clinical disease of natural Toxoplasma gondii infections in humans and animals from Egypt. The current situation of toxoplasmosis in Egypt is confusing. There is no central laboratory or group of researchers actively investigating toxoplasmosis in humans or animals, and no reports on the national level are available. Based on various serological tests and convenience samples, T. gondii infections appear highly prevalent in humans and animals from Egypt. Living circumstances in Egypt favour the transmission of T. gondii. Up to 95% of domestic cats, the key host of T. gondii, are infected with T. gondii; they are abundant in rural and suburban areas, spreading T. gondii oocysts. Many women have been tested in maternity clinics, most with no definitive diagnosis. Toxoplasma gondii DNA and IgM antibodies have been found in blood samples of blood donors. Clinical toxoplasmosis in humans from Egypt needs further investigations using definitive procedures. Reports on congenital toxoplasmosis are conflicting and some reports are alarming. Although there are many serological surveys for T. gondii in animals, data on clinical infections are lacking. Here, we critically review the status of toxoplasmosis in Egypt, which should be useful to biologist, public health workers, veterinarians and physicians.

Keywords

AnimalsEgyptepidemiologyhumansprevalenceToxoplasma gondiitoxoplasmosis
Type
Review Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 147 , Issue 2 , February 2020 , pp. 135 - 159
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abd El-Aal, NF, Saber, M, Fawzy, N and Ashour, WR (2016) Sero-prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among patients with neuropsychiatric disorders: epilespy and depression. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 46, 729–736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abd El-Ghany, AM and Amin, MAM (2012) Epidemiology and molecular detection of zoonotic Toxoplasma gondii in cat feces and seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in pregnant women and sheep. Life Science Journal 9, 133–146.Google Scholar
Abd El-Razik, KA, Mahmoud, KM, Sakr, AM, Sosa, ASA, Hasanain, MH, Ahmed, YF and Nawito, MF (2017) Evaluation of buffalo bull semen for some venereal diseases using PCR. Egyptian Journal of Veterinary Science 48, 73–79.Google Scholar
Abd El-Razik, KA, Barakat, AMA, Hussein, HA, Younes, AM, Elfadaly, HA, Eldebaky, HA and Soliman, YA (2018) Seroprevalence, isolation, molecular detection and genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii from small ruminants in Egypt. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 42, 527–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abd El Aal, AA, Nahnoush, RK, Elmallawany, MA, El-Sherbiny, WS, Badr, MS and Nasr, GM (2018) Isothermal PCR for feasible molecular diagnosis of primary toxoplasmosis in women recently experienced spontaneous abortion. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 6, 982–987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abdel-Gawad, AM, Nassar, AM and Hilali, M (1984) Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii, Isospora felis and Isospora revolta from the meat of some farm animals. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 49, 405–414.Google Scholar
Abdel-Hafeez, EH, Kamal, AM, Abdelgelil, NH and Abdel-Fatah, M (2015) Parasites transmitted to human by ingestion of different types of meat, El-Minia city, El-Minia governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 45, 671–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abdel-Hameed, DM and Hassanein, O (2004) Evaluation of semi-quantitative PCR and IgG & IgM ELISA in diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in females with miscarriage. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 34, 559–570.Google ScholarPubMed
Abdel-Rahman, MAM, El-Manyawe, SM, Khateib, AM and Saba, S (2012) Occurrence of Toxoplasma antibodies in caprine milk and serum in Egypt. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal 58, 145–152.Google Scholar
Abdel Gawad, SS, Gheith, MA, Kamel, NM and Shawky, SM (2017) Sero-prevalence of toxoplasmosis among multiparous pregnant women attending antenatal care at Beni-Suef university's hospital, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 689–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abo El Naga, AM, Shaltot, AA, El-Baz, R and Fayad, M (2008) PCR detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA versus serological diagnosis in women suffering from repeated abortion. Egyptian Journal of Hospital Medicine 33, 577–586.Google Scholar
Abo Hashim, AH and Attya, AA (2017) Screening test to detect recent Toxoplasma gondii infections in pregnant women. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 131–136.Google ScholarPubMed
Aboelhadid, SM, Abdel-Ghany, AE, Ibrahim, MA and Mahran, HA (2013) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in chickens and humans in Beni Suef, Egypt. Global Veterinaria 11, 139–144.Google Scholar
Abou-Elenin, E, Abdel-Wahab, F, El-Bestar, SF and Abdel-Aal, AM (1983) Toxoplasmosis among people at risk of exposure to infection using indirect haemagglutination test. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 13, 435–440.Google Scholar
Abou Elez, RMM, Hssanen, EAA, Tolba, HMN and Elsohaby, I (2017) Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic rabbits and humans. Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 8, 133–137.Google ScholarPubMed
AbouLaila, M, El-Bahy, N, Hilali, M, Yokoyama, N and Igarashi, I (2011) Serodiagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii in ducks from Behere Governorate, Egypt. Journal of Protozoology Research 21, 45–49.Google Scholar
Aboul-Magd, LA, Tawfik, MS, Arafa, MS and El-Ridi, AMS (1988) Toxoplasma infection of cats in Cairo area as revealed by IFAT. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 18, 403–409.Google ScholarPubMed
Abu-Zakham, AA, El-Shazly, AM, Yossef, ME, Romeia, SA and Handoussa, AE (1989) The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among cats from Mahalla El-Kobra, Gharbia Governorate. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 19, 225–229.Google ScholarPubMed
Ahmed, YF, Sokkar, SM, Desouky, HM and Soror, AH (2008) Abortion due to toxoplasmosis in small ruminants. Global Veterinaria 2, 337–342.Google Scholar
Ahmed, HA, Shafik, SM, Ali, MEM, Elghamry, ST and Ahmed, AA (2014) Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in milk and risk factor analysis of seroprevalence in pregnant women at Sharkia, Egypt. Veterinary World 7, 594–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahmed, NE, Al-Akabway, LM, Ramadan, MY, Abd El-Gawad, SM and Moustafa, MMA (2017) Serological and PCR-sequencing assays for diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infecting camels in Egypt. Benha Veterinary Medical Journal 33, 200–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Kappany, YM, Rajendran, C, Ferreira, LR, Kwok, OCH, Abu-Elwafa, SA, Hilali, M and Dubey, JP (2010) High prevalence of toxoplasmosis in cats from Egypt: isolation of viable Toxoplasma gondii, tissue distribution, and isolate designation. Journal of Parasitology 96, 1115–1118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Kappany, YM, Lappin, MR, Kwok, OCH, Abu-Elwafa, SA, Hilali, M and Dubey, JP (2011) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and concurrent Bartonella spp., feline immunodeficiency virus, feline leukemia virus, and Dirofilaria immitis infections in Egyptian cats. Journal of Parasitology 97, 256–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Kappany, YM, Abbas, IE, Devleesschauwer, B, Dorny, P, Jennes, M and Cox, E (2018) Seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in Egyptian sheep and goats. BMC Veterinary Research 14, 120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Almería, S, Calvete, C, Pagés, A, Gauss, C and Dubey, JP (2004) Factors affecting the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from Spain. Veterinary Parasitology 123, 265–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anwar, S, Mahdy, E, El-Nesr, KA, El-Dakhly, KM, Shalaby, A and Yanai, T (2013) Monitoring of parasitic cysts in the brains of a flock of sheep in Egypt. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinária 22, 323–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashmawy, KI, Abuakkada, SS and Awad, AM (2011) Seroprevalence of antibodies to Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Toxoplasma gondii in farmed domestic rabbits in Egypt. Zoonoses and Public Health 58, 357–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attia, MM, Saad, MF and Abdel-Salam, AB (2017) Milk as a substitute for serum in diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in goats. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 227–234.Google ScholarPubMed
Awadallah, MAI (2010) Endoparasites of zoonotic importance. Global Veterinaria 5, 348–355.Google Scholar
Azab, ME, Rifaat, MA, Khalil, HM, Safer, EH and Nabaweya, MK (1983) Evaluations of antibody levels of Toxoplasma infection by the immunofluorescent antibody test and ELISA test. Folia Parasitologica 30, 303–307.Google ScholarPubMed
Azab, ME, Kamel, AM, Makled, KM, Khattab, H, El-Zayyat, EA, Abo-Amer, EA and Samy, G (1992) Naturally occurring Toxoplasma antibodies in serum and milk of lactating women. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 22, 561–568.Google ScholarPubMed
Azab, ME, El-Shenawy, SF, El-Hady, HM and Ahmad, MM (1993) Comparative study of three tests (indirect haemagglutination, direct agglutination, and indirect immunofluorescence) for detection of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in pregnant women. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 23, 471–476.Google ScholarPubMed
Azab, MS, Abousamra, MK, Rahbar, MH, Elghannam, D and Raafat, D (2012) Prevalence of, risk factors for, and oxidative stress associated with Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among asymptomatic blood donors in Egypt. Retrovirology 9, P27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barakat, AMA, Abd Elaziz, MM and Fadaly, HA (2009) Comparative diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in Egyptian small ruminants by indirect hemagglutination assay and ELISA. Global Veterinaria 3, 9–14.Google Scholar
Barakat, AM, El Fadaly, HA, Shaapan, RM and Khalil, FAM (2011) Occupational health hazard of Egyptian employees in contact with wastage nourished swine. Journal of American Science 7, 808–903.Google Scholar
Barakat, AM, Salem, LM, El-Newishy, AM, Shaapan, RM and El-Mahllawy, EK (2012) Zoonotic chicken toxoplasmosis in some Egyptian governorates. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 15, 821–826.Google Scholar
Barakat, AMA, Ahmed, SO, Zaki, MS, El Fadaly, HA, Abd El-Razik, KA, El-Hariri, HM and Johar, D (2018) New approach to differentiate primary from latent Toxoplasma gondii abortion through immunoglobulin and DNA interpretation. Microbial Pathogenesis 125, 66–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bassiony, H, Soliman, NK, El Tawab, S, Eissa, S and Eossa, A (2016) Sero-prevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection among pregnant women in Alexandria, Egypt. International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology 5, 4220–4227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayoumy, AMS, Ibrahim, WLF, Abou El Nour, BM and Said, AAA (2016) The parasitic profile among school children in El-wadi El-gadded governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 46, 605–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belluco, S, Patuzzi, I and Ricci, A (2018) Bovine meat versus pork in Toxoplasma gondii transmission in Italy: a quantitative risk assessment model. International Journal of Food Microbiology 269, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botros, BAM, Moch, RW and Barsoum, IS (1973) Toxoplasmosis in Egypt. Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from a pig. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 259–261.Google ScholarPubMed
Deyab, AK and Hassanein, R (2005) Zoonotic toxoplasmosis in chicken. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 35, 341–350.Google ScholarPubMed
de Oliviera, FCR, da Costa, AJ, Bechara, GH and Sabatini, GA (2001) Distribuição e viabilidade de cistos de Toxoplasma gondii (Apicomplexa: Toxoplasmatinae) em tecidos de bos indicus, Bos taurus e Bubalus bubalis infectados com oocistos. Revista Brasileira de Medicina Veterinária 23, 28–34.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP (2010) Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans, 2nd Edn.Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP and Beattie, CP (1988) Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Man. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP, Romand, S, Hilali, M, Kwok, OCH and Thulliez, P (1998) Seroprevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from Egypt. International Journal for Parasitology 28, 527–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Graham, DH, Dahl, E, Hilali, M, El-Ghaysh, A, Sreekumar, C, Kwok, OCH, Shen, SK and Lehmann, T (2003) Isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from chickens and ducks from Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology 114, 89–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Verma, SK, Ferreira, LR, Oliveira, S, Cassinelli, AB, Ying, Y, Kwok, OCH, Tuo, W, Chiesa, OA and Jones, JL (2014) Detection and survival of Toxoplasma gondii in milk and cheese from experimentally infected goats. Journal of Food Protection 77, 1747–1753.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eida, OM, Eida, MM and Ahmed, AB (2009) Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction on amniotic fluid for diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 39, 541–550.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Beshbishi, SN, El-Tantawy, NL, Elzeky, SM, Abdalaziz, KF and Atia, RA (2018) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in children with central nervous system disorders in Mansoura, Egypt: a case-control study. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 112, 555–560.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Gawady, HM, Abdel-Aal, AA, Sallam, NH and Youissif, EM (2018) Serological and molecular studies on Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats in Ismailia Province. Archives of Infectious Diseases and Therapy 2, 1–5.Google Scholar
El-Geddawi, OA, El-Sayad, MH, Sadek, NA, Hussien, NA and Ahmed, MA (2018) Detection of T. gondii infection in blood donors in Alexandria, Egypt, using serological and molecular strategies. Parasitologists United Journal 9, 24–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Ghaysh, A (1998) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Egyptian donkeys using ELISA. Veterinary Parasitology 80, 71–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Ghaysh, AA and Mansour, MM (1994) Detection of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in an Egyptian sheep-herd using modern serological techniques. Journal of the Egyptian Association of Immunologists 1, 117–121.Google Scholar
El-Gozamy, BR, Mohamed, SA and Mansour, HA (2009) Toxoplasmosis among pregnant women in Qualyobia Governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 39, 389–401.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Madawy, SR and Metawea, FY (2013) Serological assay and PCR for detection of Toxoplasma gondii infection in an ostrich farm at Ismailia Province, Egypt. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 2, 56–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Massry, AA, Abdel-Gawad, AM and Nassar, AM (1990) Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii, Isospora felis and Isospora revolta from sheep, goats and chicken in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 2, 275–284.Google Scholar
El-Massry, A, Mahdy, OA, El-Ghaysh, A and Dubey, JP (2000) Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in sera of turkeys, chickens, and ducks from Egypt. Journal of Parasitology 86, 627–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Nahas, HA, El-Tantawy, NL, Farag, RE and Alsalem, AM (2014) Toxoplasma gondii infection among chronic hepatitis C patients: a case-control study. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 7, 589–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Nawawy, A, Soliman, AT, El Azzouni, O, Amer, E, Karim, MA, Demian, S and El Sayed, M (1996) Maternal and neonatal prevalence of Toxoplasma and cytomegalovirus (CMV) antibodies and hepatitis-B antigens in an Egyptian rural area. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 42, 154–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Newishy, AMA, Salem, LMA, Barakat, AM and El Mahallawy, EKA (2012) Zoonotic importance of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts in chickens. Benha Veterinary Medical Journal 23, 53–60.Google Scholar
El-Ridi, AMS, El-Gamal, RLR, Farghaly, AM, Ramadan, ME, Hassan, AA and Ramadan, AS (1989) Toxoplasmosis among cases of chronic tonsillitis. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 19, 85–91.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Ridi, AM, Nada, SM, Aly, AS, Habeeb, SM and Aboul-Fattah, MM (1990) Serological studies on toxoplasmosis in Zagazig slaughterhouse. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 20, 677–681.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Ridi, AM, Nada, SM, Abdul-Fattah, MM, Habeeb, YS and Awad, MB (1991 a) Prevalence of congenital and acquired toxoplasmic uveitis as evidenced by two serologic methods. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 21, 357–361.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Ridi, AM, Nada, SM, Aly, AS, Ramadan, ME, Hagar, EG and Taha, TA (1991 b) Toxoplasmosis and pregnancy: an analytical study in Zagazig, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 21, 81–85.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Sayed, NM, Abdel-Wahabl, MM, Kishik, SM and Alhusseini, NF (2016 a) Do we need to screen Egyptian voluntary blood donors for toxoplasmosis? Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease 6, 260–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Sayed, NM, Ramadan, ME and Ramadan, ME (2016 b) Toxoplasma gondii infection and chronic liver diseases: evidence of an association. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 1, 7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Settawy, MA, Fathy, GM and Dahrog, ME (2016) Comparison between avidity test and real-time PCR in diagnosis of recent toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Life Science Journal 13, 65–71.Google Scholar
El-Shazly, AM, Romia, SA, El Ganayni, GA, Abou-Zakham, AA, Sabry, AH and Morsy, TA (1991) Antibodies against some zoonotic parasites in commensal rodents trapped from Dakahila Governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 21, 169–177.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Shqanqery, HE, Ibrahim, HM, Mohamed, AH and El-Sharaawy, AA (2017) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors among asymptomatic pregnant females in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 93–100.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Tantawy, N, Taman, A and Shalaby, H (2014) Toxoplasmosis and female infertility: is there a co-relation? American Journal of Epidemiology and Infectious Disease 2, 29–32.Google Scholar
El-Tras, WF and Tayel, AA (2009) Housewives exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in kitchens. 6th International Science Conference of Veterinary Medicine. Egypt: Mansoura University, pp.643–655.Google Scholar
El Behairy, AM, Choudhary, S, Ferreira, LR, Kwok, OCH, Hilali, M, Su, C and Dubey, JP (2013) Genetic characterization of viable Toxoplasma gondii isolates from stray dogs from Giza, Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology 193, 25–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Deeb, HK, Salah-Eldin, H, Khodeer, S and Allah, AA (2012) Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in antenatal population in Menoufia governorate, Egypt. Acta Tropica 124, 185–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El Fadaly, HA, Ahmad, SO, Barakat, AMA, Soror, AH and Zaki, MS (2016) Ecological and pathological study of T. gondii Egyptian rat isolates reference to biological & genetic typescripts. International Journal PharmTech, Research 9, 128–140.Google Scholar
El Fadaly, HA, Hassanain, NA, Shaapan, RM, Hassanain, MA, Barakat, AM and Abdelrahman, KA (2017) Molecular detection and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii from Egyptian isolates. Asian Journal of Epidemiology 10, 37–44.Google Scholar
El Fakahany, AF, Abdel-Maboud, AI, El-Garhy, MF and Eraky, MA (2002) Comparative study between ELISA IgG, IgM and PCR in diagnosing and studying toxoplasmosis in Qualyobia Governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 32, 475–486.Google ScholarPubMed
El Gamal, RL, Selim, MA, Mohamed, SMA, Fathy, GM and Abdel Rahman, SA (2013) Comparison of PCR with ELISA in diagnosis of recent toxoplasmosis in pregnant women. Journal of American Science 9, 824–832.Google Scholar
El Moghazy, FM, Kandil, OM and Shaapan, RM (2011) Toxoplasma gondii: comparison of some serological tests for detection in sera of naturally infected pigs. World Journal of Zoology 6, 204–208.Google Scholar
Elfadaly, HA, Hassanain, NA, Hassanain, MA, Barakat, AM and Shaapan, RM (2018) Evaluation of primitive ground water supplies as a risk factor for the development of major waterborne zoonosis in Egyptian children living in rural areas. Journal of Infection and Public Health 11, 203–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elmonir, W, Harfoush, M, El-Tras, WF and Kotb, SA (2017) Toxoplasmosis in stray cats and pregnant women in Egypt: association between socio-demographic variables and high-risk practices by pregnant women. Life Science Journal 14, 1–5.Google Scholar
Elsheikha, HM, Azab, MS, Abousamra, NK, Rahbar, MH, Elghannam, DM and Raafat, D (2009) Seroprevallence of and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among asymptomatic blood donors in Egypt. Parasitology Research 104, 1471–1476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eraky, MA, Abdel-Hady, S and Abdallah, KF (2016) Seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. in children with cryptogenic epilepsy, Benha, Egypt. Korean Journal of Parasitology 54, 335–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fahmy, MA, Mandour, AM, Arafa, MS and Abdel Rahman, BM (1979 a) Toxoplasmosis of camels in Assiu governorate. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 39, 27–31.Google Scholar
Fahmy, MAM, Arafa, MS, Mandour, AM and Rahman, AMA (1979 b) Toxoplasmosis in ruminants in Assiut governorate, Upper Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 39, 119–126.Google Scholar
Fereig, RM, Mahmoud, HYAH, Mohamed, SGA, Mohamed, AEA and Nishikawa, Y (2016) Seroprevalence and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in farm animals in different regions of Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 3–4, 1–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Food and Agriculture Organization (2015) Africa sustainable livestock 2050 report. Country brief Egypt. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7312e/pdf.Google Scholar
Frenkel, JK (1948) Dermal hypersensitivity to Toxoplasma antigens (Toxoplasmins). Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 68, 634–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenkel, JK, Lindsay, DS, Parker, BB and Dobesh, M (2003) Dogs as possible mechanical carriers of Toxoplasma, and their fur as a source of infection of young children. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 7, 292–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghattas, SS (1999) Studies on Toxoplasma Gondii Infecting Slaughtered Pigs in Egypt (MSc. thesis), Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.Google Scholar
Ghazy, AA, Shaapan, RM and Abdel-Rahman, EH (2007) Comparative serological diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in horses using locally isolated Toxoplasma gondii. Veterinary Parasitology 145, 31–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghoneim, NH, Shalaby, SI, Hassanain, NA, Zeedan, GS, Soliman, YA and Abdalhamed, AM (2010) Comparative study between serological and molecular methods for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in women and small ruminants in Egypt. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 7, 17–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamadto, HA, Rashid, SM, El-Fakahany, AF and Lashin, AH (1997) Seroepidemiological studies for toxoplasmosis among out- and inpatients in Benha University Hospitals, Qualyobia Governorate. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 27, 223–231.Google ScholarPubMed
Hamed, AMR, El-Gebaly, NSM, Abdelmegeid, AK and Elsebaei, ES (2018) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in mentally retarded children in Egypt. Parasitologists United Journal 11, 155–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammouda, NA, El-Gebaly, WM and Sadaka, SM (1993) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma and cytomegalovirus in complicated pregnancies. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 23, 865–870.Google ScholarPubMed
Harfoush, M and Tahoon, AE (2010) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in domestic ducks, free-range chickens, turkeys and rabbits in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 40, 295–302.Google ScholarPubMed
Haridy, FM, Shoukry, NM, Hassan, AA and Morsy, TA (2009) ELISA-seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in draught horses in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 39, 821–826.Google ScholarPubMed
Haridy, FM, Saleh, NMK, Khalil, HH and Morsy, TA (2010) Anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in working donkeys and donkey's milk in greater Cairo, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 40, 459–464.Google ScholarPubMed
Hassan-Wassef, H (2004) Food habits of the Egyptians: newly emerging trends. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 10, 898–915.Google ScholarPubMed
Hassanain, MA, Ezzo, OH and Deghidy, BS (1992) Some biochemical and hormonal changes in Toxoplasma-infected and aborted ewes. Egyptian Journal of Comparative Pathology and Clinical Pathology 5, 221–227.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, Zayed, AA, Derbala, AA and Kutkat, MA (1997) Serological diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii (Apicomplexa:Toxoplasminae) infection in laying hens. Egyptian Journal of Applied Sciences 12, 1–8.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, Barakat, AM, Elfadaly, HA, Hassanain, NA and Shaapan, RM (2008) Zoonotic impact of Toxoplasma gondii sero-prevalence in naturally infected Egyptian kittens. Journal of the Arab Society for Medical Research 3, 243–248.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, Elfadaly, HA, Shaapan, RM, Hassanain, NA and Barakat, AM (2011) Biological assay of Toxoplasma gondii Egyptian mutton isolates. International Journal of Zoological Research 7, 330–337.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, El-Fadaly, HA, Hassanain, NA, Shaapan, RM, Barakat, AM and Abd El Razik, KA (2013) Serological and molecular diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in human and animals. World Journal of Medical Sciences 9, 243–247.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, El Bolaky, HAA, Younis, AIH, Abd El-Razik, KA, El Fadaly, HA and Abd El Wahab, WM (2015) Serological and molecular diagnosis of T. gondii in complicated pregnant Egyptian women. Basic Research Journal of Medicine and Clinical Sciences 9, 231–236.Google Scholar
Hassanain, MA, Elfadaly, HA, Abd El Wahab, WM and Abo El-Maaty, AM (2018 a) Comparative hormonal and immunoglobulin profiles of aborted women with or without toxoplasmosis. Journal of Pregnancy and Reproduction 2, 1–4.Google Scholar
Hassanain, NA, Shaapan, RM and Hassanain, MA (2018 b) Associated antenatal health risk factors with incidence of toxoplasmosis in Egyptian pregnant women. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 21, 463–468.Google Scholar
Hilali, M, Nassar, AM and Ramadan, EI (1991) Detection of encephalitozoonosis and toxoplasmosis among rabbits by carbon immunoassay. Veterinary Medical Journal Giza 39, 129–135.Google Scholar
Hilali, M, Romand, S, Thulliez, P, Kwok, OCH and Dubey, JP (1998) Prevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in sera from camels from Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology 75, 269–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussein, AH, Ali, AE, Saleh, MH, Nagaty, IM and Rezk, AY (2001) Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in Qualyobia governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 31, 355–563.Google ScholarPubMed
Hussein, AH, Alawamy, W, Abd El-Maboud, AI, Elghareeb, AS and Hamadto, HA (2016) The role of toxoplasmosis and coincidental placental inflammation and Fas ligand expression as a cause of spontaneous abortion in pregnant women from Benha city, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Medical Sciences 37, 181–197.Google Scholar
Hussein, SMM, Elshemy, AS, Abd El-Mawgod, MM and Mohammed, AS (2017) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among primigravida women and their neonates in Sohag governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 381–388.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, MHS (1990) Studies on Parasitic Infections Among Egyptian Pigs (MSc. thesis), Benha University, Benha, Egypt.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, BB, Salama, MM, Gawish, NI and Haridy, FM (1997) Serological and histopathological studies on Toxoplasma gondii among the workers and the slaughtered animals in Tanta Abattoir, Gharbia Governorate. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 27, 273–278.Google ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, HM, Huang, P, Salem, TA, Talaat, RM, Nasr, MI, Xuan, X and Nishikawa, Y (2009) Short report: prevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in northern Egypt. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 263–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, HM, Abdel-Ghaffar, F, Osman, GY, El-Shourbagy, SH, Nishikawa, Y and Khattab, RA (2016) Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in chicken samples from delta of Egypt using ELISA, histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 40, 485–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, HM, Mohamed, AH, El-Sharaawy, AA and El-Shqanqery, HE (2017) Molecular and serological prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pregnant women and sheep in Egypt. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 10, 996–1001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, HM, Osman, GY, Mohamed, AH, Al-Selwi, AGM, Nishikawa, Y and Abdel-Ghaffar, F (2018) Toxoplasma gondii: prevalence of natural infection in pigeons and ducks from middle and upper Egypt using serological, histopathological, and immunohistochemical diagnostic methods. Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 13, 45–49.Google ScholarPubMed
Kamal, AM, Ahmed, AK, Abdellatif, MZ, Tawfik, M and Hassan, EE (2015) Seropositivity of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women by ELISA at Minia University Hospital, Egypt. Korean Journal of Parasitology 53, 605–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khalafalla, RE (2011) A survey study on gastrointestinal parasites of stray cats in northern region of Nile Delta, Egypt. PLoS ONE 6, e20283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khaled, MLM, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM and Salama, MMI (1982) The presence of antibodies against toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis and amoebiasis in stray dogs in Cairo, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 12, 341–347.Google ScholarPubMed
Khater, H, Khalifa, N and Barakat, A (2013) Serological and molecular studies of ovine and human toxoplasmosis with a trial of treatment of infected ewe. Scientific Journal of Veterinary Advances 2, 157–168.Google Scholar
Kuraa, HM and Malek, SS (2016) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in ruminants by using latex agglutination test (LAT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in Assiut governorate. Tropical Biomedicine 33, 711–725.Google Scholar
Mabrouk, MA and Dahawi, HS (1991) Toxoplasma antibodies in patients with meningoencephalitis. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 21, 547–551.Google ScholarPubMed
Mahboub, HD, Helal, MA, Abd Eldaim, MA, Abd El-Razek, EM and Elsify, AM (2013) Seroprevalence of abortion causing agents in Egyptian sheep and goat breeds and their effects on the animal's performance4. Journal of Agricultural Science 5, 92–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandour, AM, Mounib, MEM, Eldeek, HEM, Ahmad, AAR and Abdel-Kader, ARMM (2017) Prevalence of congenital toxoplasmosis in pregnant women with complicated pregnancy outcomes in Assiut governorate, Egypt. Journal of Advances in Parasitology 4, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maronpot, RR and Botros, BAM (1972) Toxoplasma serologic survey in man and domestic animals in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 47, 58–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Michael, SA (1977) Comparative studies on Toxoplasma antibody titers obtained by the new slide agglutination test and other serological test. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 7, 73–79.Google Scholar
Michael, SA, El Reaii, AH and Morsy, TA (1977) Incidence of Toxoplasma antibodies among camels in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 7, 129–132.Google Scholar
Mikhail, MW, Hasan, AH, Ali Allam, K and Mohammed, NM (2017) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among commensal rodents from Giza governorate, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 47, 147–156.Google ScholarPubMed
Morsy, TA, Michael, SA and Musallam, RA (1981) Antibodies against some parasites of zoonotic importance in rodents caught in Port Said governorate, A.R.E. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 11, 147–156.Google ScholarPubMed
Morsy, TA, Michael, SA, Bassili, WR and Saleh, MS (1982) Studies on rodents and their zoonotic parasites, particularly Leishmania, in Ismailiya Governorate, A. R., Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 12, 565–855.Google Scholar
Nassef, NE, Abd El-Ghaffar, MM, El-Nahas, NS, Hassanain, ME, Shams El-Din, SA and Ammar, AIM (2015) Seroprevalence and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in Menoufia governorate. Menoufa Medical Journal 28, 617–626.Google Scholar
Nicolle, C and Manceaux, L (1908) Sur une infection à corps de Leishman (ou organismes voisins) du gondi. Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Academie des Sciences 147, 763–766.Google Scholar
Opsteegh, M, Prickaerts, S, Frankena, K and Evers, EG (2011) A quantitative microbial risk assessment for meatborne Toxoplasma gondii infection in The Netherlands. International Journal of Food Microbiology 150, 103–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peyron, F, Wallon, M, Kieffer, F and Graweg, G (2016) Toxoplasmosis. In Remington, JS, Klein, JO, Wilson, CB, Nizet, V and Maldonado, YA (8th eds), Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant. Philadelphia, USA: Elsevier Saunders, pp. 949–1042.Google Scholar
Ramadan, MY, Abdel-Mageed, AD and Khater, HF (2007) Seroprevalence and preliminary treatment of toxoplasmosis of pregnant goats in Kalubyia Governorate, Egypt. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 35, 295–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rifaat, MA and Nagaty, HF (1959) Toxoplasmosis in Egypt. A toxoplasmin-skin-testing survey among a group of Cairo population. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 34, 121–135.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Salem, SA and Morsy, TA (1962) Toxoplasmosis in Egypt. A toxoplasmin skin testing survey among a group of population in Tahrir Province, UAR. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 37, 163–166.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Schafia, A, Salem, SA, Morsy, TA and Khalid, MLM (1963) A toxoplasmin skin-test survey in El Waady El Gadeed, United Arab Republic. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 57, 134–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Michael, SA and Morsy, TA (1968) Toxoplasmin skin test survey among buffaloes and cattle in U.A.R. (Preliminary Report.). Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71, 297–298.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA and Sadek, MSM (1969) Toxoplasmosis in chickens and pigeons in U.A.R. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 72, 193–194.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Salem, SA and Sadek, MSM (1970) Serological pattern of toxoplsmosis in stray dogs and cats collected from Cairo. Pakistan Medical Review, Karachi 5, 11.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Mahdi, AH, Arafa, MS, Nasr, NT and Sadek, MSM (1971) Isolation of Toxoplasma from Rattus norvegicus in Egypt. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 65, 788–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Arafa, MS, Sadek, MS, Sabri, A and Mandour, AM (1972) A preliminary note on toxoplasmosis among inpatients of the obstetrics department, university hospital at Assiut, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 47, 36–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Sadek, MSM and Elazghal, HI (1973 a) Isolation of Toxoplasma from a human placenta in Egypt. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 90.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Sadek, MSM, Elnaggar, BA and Munir, AM (1973 b) Case of toxoplasmic uveitis treated with pyrimethamine and sulfa drugs in Egypt. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 252–253.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Hanna, SM, Abdallah, A, Moch, RW and Botros, BAM (1973 c) Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from man in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 47, 36–44.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Nasr, NT, Sadek, MSM, Arafa, MS and Mahdi, AH (1973 d) The role of domestic rat, Rattus alexandrinus as a reservoir host of Toxoplasma gondii in Egypt. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 257–258.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Wishahy, AG, Sadek, MSM, Elkhalek, KA and Munir, AM (1973 e) Case of congenital toxoplasmosis in Egypt. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 255–256.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Salem, SA, Khalil, HM, Khaled, MLM, Sadek, MSM, Azab, ME and Hanna, SM (1975) Toxoplasmosis serological surveys among inhabitants of some governorates of Egypt. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 118–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Arafa, MS, Sadek, MSM and Nasr, NT (1976 a) Natural infection of the Cairo spiny mouse, Acomys cahirinus with Trypanosoma and Toxoplasma in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 6, 45–52.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Salem, SA, Sadek, MSM, Azab, ME, Abdel-Ghaffar, FM and Abdel-Baki, MH (1976 b) Toxoplasmosis in sheep and dogs in Egypt. I. Isolation of local strains. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 6, 135–139.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Arafa, MS, Sadek, MSM, Nasr, NT, Azab, ME, Mahmoud, W and Khalil, MS (1976 c) Toxoplasma infection of stray cats in Egypt. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 67–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM, Arafa, MS, Azab, ME and Abdel Ghaffar, FM (1977 a) Isolation of Toxoplasma parasite from animals in Egypt (review). Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 7, 219–223.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM, Azab, ME, Safar, EH and Nour El-Din, OM (1977 b) Serological surveys for toxoplasmosis among farm animals in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 7, 229–233.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM, Khalid, MLM, Azab, ME, Makled, MK, Safar, EH and Nour El-Din, OM (1977 c) Incidence of toxoplasmosis among farm animals in Suez Canal Governorates. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 7, 135–140.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM, Khalid, MLM, Azab, ME and Safar, EH (1978) Prevalence of Toxoplasma antibodies among slaughtered animals in lower Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 8, 339–345.Google Scholar
Rifaat, MA, Morsy, TA, Sadek, MSM, Azab, ME, Khaled, MLM and Safar, EH (1979) Incidence of toxoplasmosis among farm animals in north coastal zone of Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 9, 193–197.Google Scholar
Robert-Gangneux, F and Dardé, ML (2012) Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 25, 264–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rouatbi, M, Amairia, S, Amdouni, Y, Boussaadoun, MA, Ayadi, O, Al-Hosary, AAT, Rekik, M, Ben Abdallah, R, Aoun, K, Darghouth, MA, Wieland, B and Gharbi, M (2019) Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in North Africa: a review. Parasite 26, 6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rousseau, A, Villena, I, Dumètre, A, Escotte-Binet, S, Favennec, L, Dubey, JP, Aubert, D and La Carbona, S (2019) Evaluation of propidium monoazide-based qPCR to detect viable oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitology Research 118, 999–1010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saad, MY, Temsah, KA, Abdel Daym, M, Soliman, WA and Abu Albas, M (2016) Immunoblot assay for toxoplasmosis in schizophrenic patients. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research 3, 685–689.Google Scholar
Saad, NM, Hussein, AAA and Ewida, RM (2018) Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in raw goat, sheep, and camel milk in Upper Egypt. Veterinary World 11, 1262–1265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sadek, OA, Abdel-Hameed, ZM and Kuraa, HM (2015) Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in raw goat and sheep milk with discussion of its public health importance in Assiut Governorate. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal 61, 166–177.Google Scholar
Safar, EH, Abd-el Ghaffar, FM, Saffar, SA, Makled, KM, Habib, KS, El Abiad, R and El Shabrawy, E (1995) Incidence of Toxoplasma and Toxocara antibodies among out-patients in the Ophthalmic Research Institute, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 25, 839–852.Google ScholarPubMed
Sahwi, SY, Zaki, MS, Haiba, NY, Elsaid, OK, Anwar, MY and AbdRabbo, SA (1995) Toxoplasmosis as a cause of repeated abortion. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 21, 145–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaapan, RM and Ghazy, AA (2007) Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from horse meat in Egypt. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 10, 174–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaapan, RM and Khalil, AMF (2008) Evaluation of different Toxoplasma gondii isolates as antigens used in the modified agglutination test for the detection of toxoplasmosis in camels and donkeys. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences 3, 837–841.Google Scholar
Shaapan, RM, El-Nawawi, FA and Tawfik, MAA (2008) Sensitivity and specificity of various serological tests for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii infection in naturally infected sheep. Veterinary Parasitology 153, 359–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaapan, RM, Hassanain, MA and Khalil, FAM (2010) Modified agglutination test for serologic survey of Toxoplasma gondii infection in goats and water buffaloes in Egypt. Research Journal of Parasitology 5, 13–17.Google Scholar
Shaapan, RM, Khalil, FAM and Abu El Ezz, NMT (2011) Cryptosporidiosis and toxoplasmosis in native quails of Egypt. Research Journal of Veterinary Sciences 4, 30–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaapan, RM, Abo-ElMaaty, AM, Abd El-Razik, KA and Abd El-Hafez, SM (2012) PCR and serological assays for detection of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sport horses in Cairo, Egypt. Asian Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 7, 158–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shatat, MA, El-Darwish, AG, Samie, MA and Hassan, MA (2006) Seroprevalence study of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies in complicated pregnancies in Assiut governorate. Al-Azhar Assiut Medical Journal 4, 24–30.Google Scholar
Shehata, AI, Hassanein, FI and Abdul-Ghani, R (2016) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among patients with non-schizophrenic neurodevelopmental disorders in Alexandria, Egypt. Acta Tropica 154, 155–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soliman, M, Nour-Eldin, MS, Elnaggar, HM, El-Ghareb, ME and Ramadan, NI (2001) Toxoplasma antibodies in normal and complicated pregnancy. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 31, 637–646.Google ScholarPubMed
Splendore, A (1908) Un nuovo protozoo parassita de conigli incontrato nelle lesioni anatomiche d'une malattia che ricorda in molti punti il Kala-azar dell' uomo. Nota preliminare. Revista de Sociedade Scientífica de São Paulo 3, 109–112.Google Scholar
Tammam, AE, Haridy, MA, Abdellah, AH, Ahmed, SR, Fayed, HM and Alsammani, MA (2013) Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in women with first trimester spontaneous miscarriage in Qena governorate, Egypt. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 7, 2870–2873.Google ScholarPubMed
Tolba, MM, El-Taweel, HA, Khalil, SS, Hazzah, WA and Heshmat, MG (2014) Genotype analysis of T. gondii strains associated with human infection in Egypt. Parasitology Research 113, 1563–1569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tonouhewa, AB, Akpo, Y, Sessou, P, Adoligbe, C, Yessinou, E, Hounmanou, YG, Assogba, MN, Youssao, I and Farougou, S (2017) Toxoplasma gondii infection in meat animals from Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis of sero-epidemiological studies. Veterinary World 10, 194–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Population Review (2019) Egypt population. Available at http://www.worldpopulationreview.com/countries/egypt-population.Google Scholar
Younis, EE, Abou-Zeid, NZ, Zakaria, M and Mahmoud, MR (2015) Epidemiological studies on toxoplasmosis in small ruminants and equine in Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal 61, 22–31.Google Scholar