Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T06:13:46.382Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Physical Activity, Not Diet, Should be the Focus of Measures for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Alexander L. Macnair
Affiliation:
20 Wimpole Street, London W1
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1994

References

REFERENCES

Ahrens, E. H., Blankenhorn, D. H. & Tsaltas, T. T. (1954). Effect on human serum lipids of substituting plant for animal fat in diet. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 86, 872878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, E. M. (1925). Treatment of Kidney Disease and Blood Pressure; (Part I). Newark, NJ: Newark Printing Company Inc.Google Scholar
Ambard, L. & Beaujard, E. (1904). [Causes of arterial hypertension.] Archives Générales de Médecine S. H.1, 520533.Google Scholar
Barker, D. J. P. (1992). Fetal and Infant Origins of Adult Disease. London: British Medical Journal.Google Scholar
Barker, D. J. P., Bull, A. R., Osmond, C. & Simmonds, S. J. (1990). Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. British Medical Journal 301, 259262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, A. D., Laakso, M., Brechtel, G. & Edelman, S. V. (1991). Mechanism of insulin resistance in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a major role for reduced skeletal muscle blood flow. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 73, 637643.Google Scholar
Baron, A. D., Laakso, M., Brechtel, G., Hoit, B., Watt, C. & Edelman, S. V. (1990). Reduced postprandial skeletal muscle blood flow contributes to glucose intolerance in human obesity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 70, 15251533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, O. L., Harper, R., Sheridan, B., Atkinson, A. B. & Bell, P. M. (1993). Insulin resistance in offspring of hypertensive parents. British Medical Journal 307, 9296.Google Scholar
Berenson, G. S., Blonde, C. V., Farris, R. P., Foster, T. A., Frank, G. C., Srinivasan, S. R., Voors, A. W. & Webber, L. S. (1979). Cardiovascular disease risk factor variables during the first year of life. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood 133, 10491057.Google Scholar
Berenson, G. S., Srinivasan, S. R., Hunter, S. M., Nicklas, T. A., Freedman, D. S., Shear, C. L. & Webber, L. S. (1989). Risk factors in early life as predictors of adult heart disease: the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of the Medical Sciences 298, 141151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björntorp, P. (1987). Adipose tissue distribution, plasma insulin, and cardiovascular disease. Diabète et Métabolisme 13, 381385.Google ScholarPubMed
Björntorp, P. (1990). ‘Portal’ adipose tissue as a generator of risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Arteriosclerosis 10, 493496.Google Scholar
Björntorp, P. & Sjöström, L. (1978). Carbohydrate storage in man: speculations and some quantitative considerations. Metabolism 27, Suppl. II, 18531865.Google Scholar
Blomqvist, C. G. & Saltin, B. (1983). Cardiovascular adaptations to physical training. Annual Review of Physiology 45, 169189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, C., Tremblay, A., Després, J.-P., Nadeau, A., Lupien, P. J., Thériault, G., Dussault, J., Moorjani, S., Pinault, S. & Fournier, G. (1990). The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins. New England Journal of Medicine 322, 14771482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, M. S. & Goldstein, J. L. (1984). How LDL receptors influence cholesterol and atherosclerosis. Scientific American 251 (5), 5866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. S. & Goldstein, J. L. (1986). A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science 232, 3447.Google Scholar
Brown, M. S. & Goldstein, J. L. (1991). The hyperlipoproteinemias and other disorders of lipid metabolism. In Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 12th edn, pp. 18141825 [Wilson, J. D.J.Braunwald, E., Isselbacher, K. J., Petersdorf, R. G., Martin, R. G., Fauci, A. S. & Root, R. K., editors]. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Dahl, L. K. (1972). Salt and hypertension. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 25, 232244.Google Scholar
Dahl, L. K. & Love, R. A. (1954). Evidence for a relationship between sodium chloride intake and human essential hypertension. Archives of Internal Medicine 94, 525531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, L. K., Knudsen, K. D., Heine, M. A. & Leitl, G. J. (1968). Effects of chronic excess salt ingestion: modification of experimental hypertension in the rat by variations in the diet. Circulation Research 22, 1118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, L. K., Silver, L. & Christie, R. (1958). Role of salt in the fall of blood pressure accompanying reduction of obesity. New England Journal of Medicine 258, 11861192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. (1992). Atherosclerosis – can regression be achieved? Cardiology in Practice 10, 45.Google Scholar
DeFronzo, R. A. (1988). The triumvirate: β-cell, muscle, liver: a collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes 37, 667687.Google Scholar
DeFronzo, R. A., Cooke, C. R., Andres, R., Faloona, G. R. & Davis, P. J. (1975). The effect of insulin on renal handling of sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 55, 845855.Google Scholar
DeFronzo, R. A., Tobin, J. D. & Andres, R. (1979). Glucose clamp technique: a method for quantifying insulin secretion and resistance. American Journal of Physiology 237, E214E223.Google ScholarPubMed
De Wardener, H. E. (1990). The primary role of the kidney and salt intake in the aetiology of essential hypertension. Clinical Science 79, 193200, 289-297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietschy, J. M., Turley, S. D. & Spady, D. K. (1993). Role of liver in the maintenance of cholesterol and low density lipoprotein homeostasis in different animal species, including humans—review. Journal of Lipid Research 34, 16371659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dustan, H. P. (1985). Obesity and hypertension. Annals of Internal Medicine 103, 10471049.Google Scholar
Eichner, E. R. (1983). Exercise and heart disease: epidemiology of the ‘exercise hypothesis’. American Journal of Medicine 75, 10081023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekblom, B. (1971). Physical training in normal boys in adolescence. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica Suppl. 217, 6062.Google Scholar
Eriksson, J., Franssila-Kallunki, A., Ekstrand, A., Saloranta, C., Widén, E., Schalin, C. & Groop, L. (1989). Early metabolic defects in persons at increased risk for non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine 321, 337343.Google Scholar
Faggiotto, A. & Ross, R. (1984). Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the non-human primate. II. Fatty streak conversion to fibrous plaque. Arteriosclerosis 4, 341356.Google Scholar
Faggiotto, A., Ross, R. & Harker, L. (1984). Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the non-human primate. I. Changes that lead to fatty streak formation. Arteriosclerosis 4, 323340.Google Scholar
Fentem, P. H. (1992). Exercise in prevention of disease. British Medical Bulletin 48, 630650.Google Scholar
Flatt, J. P. (1987). Dietary fat, carbohydrate balance, and weight maintenance: effects of exercise. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 296306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fomon, S. J., Haschke, F., Ziegler, E. E. & Nelson, S. E. (1982). Body composition of reference children from birth to age 10 years. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35, 11691175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frank, G. C., Berenson, G. S. & Webber, L. S. (1978). Dietary studies and the relationship of diet to cardiovascular disease risk factor variables in 10-year-old children: the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 328340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraser, G. E., Phillips, R. L. & Harris, R. (1983). Physical fitness and blood pressure in school children. Circulation 67, 405411.Google Scholar
Freedman, D. S., Srinivasan, S. R., Burke, G. L., Shear, C. L., Smoak, C. G., Harsha, D. W., Webber, L. S. & Berenson, G. S. (1987). Relation of body fat distribution to hyperinsulinemia in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, 403410.Google Scholar
Frohlich, E. D., Messerli, F. H., Reisin, E. & Dunn, F. G. (1983). The problems of obesity and hypertension. Hypertension 5 Suppl., III71III78.Google Scholar
Garvey, W. T., Olefsky, J. M. & Marshall, S. (1986). Insulin induces progressive insulin resistance in cultured rat adipocytes: sequential effects at receptor and multiple post receptor sites. Diabetes 35, 258267.Google Scholar
Geleijnse, J. M., Grobbee, D. E. & Hofman, A. (1990). Sodium and potassium intake and blood pressure change in childhood. British Medical Journal 300, 899902.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J. L., Ho, Y. K., Basu, S. K. & Brown, M. S. (1979). Binding site on macrophages that mediates uptake and degradation of acetylated low density lipoprotein, producing massive cholesterol deposition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 76, 333337.Google Scholar
Gordon, T. (1970). The Framingham Diet Study: diet and the regulation of serum cholesterol. In The Framingham Study: an Epidemiological Investigation of Cardiovascular Disease, Section 24 [Kannel, W. B. and Gordon, T., editors]. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Grobbee, D. E., van Hooft, I. M. S. & de Man, S. A. (1990). Determinants of blood pressure in the first decades of life. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 16, Suppl. 7, S71S74.Google Scholar
Guyton, A. C. (1989). Dominant role of the kidneys and accessory role of whole-body autoregulation in the pathogenesis of hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension 2, 575585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagberg, J. M., Ehsani, A. S., Goldring, D., Hernandez, A., Sinacore, D. R. & Holloszy, J. O. (1984). Effect of weight training on blood pressure and hemodynamics in hypertensive adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics 104, 147151.Google Scholar
Havlik, R. J., Hubert, H. B., Fabsitz, R. R. & Feinlieb, M. (1983). Weight and hypertension. Annals of Internal Medicine 98, 855859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hegsted, D. M., McGandy, R. B., Myers, M. L. & Stare, F. J. (1965). Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in man. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17, 281295.Google Scholar
Henriksen, T., Mahoney, E. M. & Steinberg, D. (1981). Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: recognition by receptors for acetylated low density lipoproteins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 78, 64996503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hessler, J. R., Robertson, A. L. & Chisholm, G. M. (1979). LDL induced cytotoxicity and its inhibition by HDL in human vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells in culture. Atherosclerosis 32, 213229.Google Scholar
Hofman, A., Walter, H. J., Connelly, P. A. & Vaughan, R. D. (1987). Blood pressure and physical fitness in children. Hypertension 9, 188191.Google Scholar
Hubert, H. B. (1984). The nature of the relationship between obesity and cardiovascular disease. International Journal of Cardiology 6, 268274.Google Scholar
Inadera, H., Ito, S., Ishikana, Y., Shinomiya, M., Shirai, K., Saito, Y. & Yoshida, S. (1993). Visceral fat deposition is seen in patients with insulinoma. Diabetologia 36, 9192.Google Scholar
Ingjer, F. & Brodal, P. (1978). Capillary supply of skeletal muscle fibers in untrained and endurance-trained women. European Journal of Applied Physiology 38, 291299.Google Scholar
Ingle, D. J. (1949). A simple means of producing obesity in the rat. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 72, 604605.Google Scholar
Jarrett, R. J. (1988). Is insulin atherogenic? Diabetologia 31, 7175.Google Scholar
Jarrett, R. J. (1992). In defence of insulin: a critique of syndrome X. Lancet 340, 469471.Google Scholar
Jennings, G., Nelson, L., Nestel, P., Esler, M., Korner, P., Burton, D. & Bazelmans, J. (1986). The effects of changes in physical activity on major cardiovascular risk factors, hemodynamics, sympathetic function, and glucose utilization in man: a controlled study of four levels of activity. Circulation 73, 3040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Julius, S., Gudbrandsson, T., Jamerson, K., Shahab, S. T. & Andersson, O. (1991). The hemodynamic link between insulin resistance and hypertension. Journal of Hypertension 9, 983986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahn, H. A., Medalie, J. H., Neufeld, H. N., Riss, E., Balogh, M. & Groen, J. J. (1969). Serum cholesterol: its distribution and association with dietary and other variables in a survey of 10,000 men. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 5, 11171127.Google Scholar
Kannel, W. B. & Thomas, H. E. (1982). Sudden coronary death: The Framingham Study. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 382, 320.Google Scholar
Kaplan, N. M. (1989). The deadly quartet: upper-body obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension. Archives of Internal Medicine 149, 15141520.Google Scholar
Kempner, W. (1948). Treatment of hypertensive vascular disease with rice diet. American Journal of Medicine 4, 545577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keys, A., Anderson, J. T. & Grande, F. (1957). Prediction of serum-cholesterol responses of man to changes in fats in the diet. Lancet 2, 959966.Google Scholar
Kiens, B. & Lithell, H. (1989). Lipoprotein metabolism influenced by training-induced changes in human skeletal muscle. Journal of Clinical Investigation 83, 558564.Google Scholar
Kinsell, L. W., Partridge, J., Boling, L., Margen, S. & Michaels, G. (1952). Dietary modification of serum cholesterol and phospholipide levels. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 12, 909913.Google Scholar
Kohner, E. M. (1993). Diabetic retinopathy. British Medical Journal 307, 11951199.Google Scholar
Korner, P. I. (1994). Some thoughts on pathogenesis, therapy and prevention of hypertension. Blood Pressure 3, 717.Google Scholar
Kramsch, D. M., Aspen, A. J., Abramowitz, B. M., Kreimendahl, T. & Hood, W. B. (1981). Reduction of coronary atherosclerosis by moderate conditioning exercise in monkeys on an atherogenic diet. New England Journal of Medicine 305, 14831489.Google Scholar
Krotkiewski, M., Mandroukas, K., Sjöström, L., Sullivan, L., Wetterqvist, H. & Björntorp, P. (1979). Effects of long-term physical training on body fat, metabolism, and blood pressure in obesity. Metabolism 28, 650658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lapidus, L., Bengtsson, C., Larsson, B., Pennert, K., Rybo, E. & Sjöström, L. (1984). Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: a 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. British Medical Journal 289, 12571261.Google Scholar
Law, M. R., Frost, C. D. & Wald, N. J. (1991). By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? I. Analysis of observational data among populations. British Medical Journal 302, 811815.Google Scholar
Lorenzi, M. (1992). Glucose toxicity in the vascular complications of diabetes: the cellular perspective. Diabetes & Metabolism Review 8, 85103.Google Scholar
McNamara, D. J., Kolb, R., Parker, T. S., Batwin, H., Samuel, P., Brown, C. D. & Ahrens, E. H. (1987). Heterogeneity of cholesterol homeostasis in man: responses to changes in dietary fat quality and cholesterol quantity. Journal of Clinical Investigation 79, 17291739.Google Scholar
Martin, M. J., Hulley, S. B., Browner, W. S., Kuller, L. H. & Wentworth, D. (1986). Serum cholesterol, blood pressure, and mortality: implications from a cohort of 361 662 men. Lancet 2, 933936.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. (1953). Glucostatic mechanism of regulation of food intake. New England Journal of Medicine 249, 1316.Google Scholar
Mayer, J., Marshall, N. B., Vitale, J. J., Christensen, J. H., Mashayekhi, M. B. & Stare, F. J. (1954). Exercise, food intake and body weight in normal rats and genetically obese adult mice. American Journal of Physiology 177, 544548.Google Scholar
Mayer, J., Roy, P. & Mitra, K. P. (1956). Relation between calorie intake, body weight, and physical work: studies in an industrial male population in West Bengal. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 4, 169175.Google Scholar
Messerli, F. H. (1982). Cardiovascular effects of obesity and hypertension. Lancet 1, 11651168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, J. H. & Bogdonoff, M. D. (1954). Antidiuresis associated with administration of insulin. Journal of Applied Physiology 6, 509512.Google Scholar
Miller, J. Z., Weinberger, M. H., Daugherty, S. A., Fineberg, N. S., Christian, J. C. & Grim, C. E. (1987). Heterogeneity of blood pressure response to dietary sodium restriction in normotensive adults. Journal of Chronic Diseases 40, 245250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Modan, M., Halkin, H., Fuchs, Z., Lusky, A., Chetrit, A., Segal, P., Eshkol, A., Almog, S. & Shefi, M. (1987). Hyperinsulinemia: a link between glucose intolerance, obesity, hypertension, dyslipoproteinemia, elevated serum uric acid and internal cation imbalance. Diabète et Métabolisme 13, 375380.Google Scholar
Moller, D. E. & Flier, J. S. (1991). Insulin resistance—mechanisms, syndromes, and implications. New England Journal of Medicine 325, 938948.Google Scholar
Morris, J. N., Marr, J. W., Heady, J. A., Mills, G. L. & Pilkington, T. R. E. (1963). Diet and plasma cholesterol in 99 bank men. British Medical Journal 1, 571576.Google Scholar
Newman, W. P., Freedman, D. S., Voors, A. W., Gard, P. D., Srinivasan, S. R., Cresanta, J. L., Williamson, G. D., Webber, L. S. & Berenson, G. S. (1986). Relation of serum lipoprotein levels and systolic blood pressure to early atherosclerosis: the Bogalusa Heart Study. New England Journal of Medicine 314, 138144.Google Scholar
Nichols, A. B., Ravenscroft, C., Lamphlear, D. E. & Ostrander, L. D. (1976). Independence of serum lipid levels and dietary habits: the Tecumseh Study. Journal of the American Medical Association 236, 19481953.Google Scholar
Ornish, D., Brown, S. E., Scherwitz, L. W., Billings, J. H., Armstrong, W. T., Ports, T. A., McLanahan, S. M., Kirkeeide, R. L., Brand, R. J. & Gould, K. L. (1990). Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? Lancet 336, 129133.Google Scholar
Paffenbarger, R. S., Hyde, R. T., Wing, A. L., Lee, I.-M., Jung, D. L. & Kampert, J. B. (1993). The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. New England Journal of Medicine 328, 538545.Google Scholar
Pilbeam, D. (1984). The descent of hominoids and hominids. Scientific American 250 (3), 6069.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinn, D., Shiraj, K. & Jackson, R. L. (1982). Lipoprotein lipase: mechanism of action and role in lipoprotein metabolism. Progress in Lipid Research 22, 3578.Google Scholar
Ramsay, L. E., Yeo, W. W. & Jackson, P. R. (1991). Dietary reduction of serum cholesterol concentration: time to think again. British Medical Journal 303, 953957.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randle, P. J., Garland, P. B., Hales, C. N. & Newsholme, E. A. (1963). The glucose fatty-acid cycle: its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1, 785789.Google Scholar
Rauramaa, R., Salonen, J. T., Kukkonen-Harjula, K., Seppänen, K., Seppälä, E., Vapaatalo, H. & Huttunen, J. K. (1984). Effects of mild physical exercise on serum lipoproteins and metabolites of arachidonic acid: a controlled randomised trial in middle aged men. British Medical Journal 288, 603606.Google Scholar
Ravussin, E., Lillioja, S., Knowler, W. C., Christin, L., Freymond, D., Abbott, W. G. H., Boyce, V., Howard, B. V. & Bogardus, C. (1988). Reduced rate of energy expenditure as a risk factor for body-weight gain. New England Journal of Medicine 318, 467472.Google Scholar
Reaven, G. M. (1988). Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 37, 15951607.Google Scholar
Reichl, D., Myant, N. B., Brown, M. S. & Goldstein, J. L. (1978). Biologically active low density lipoprotein in human peripheral lymph. Journal of Clinical Investigation 61, 6471.Google Scholar
Richter, E. A., Hansen, S. A. & Hansen, B. F. (1988 a). Mechanisms limiting glycogen storage in muscle during prolonged insulin stimulation. American Journal of Physiology 255, E621E628.Google ScholarPubMed
Richter, E. A., Hansen, B. F. & Hansen, S. A. (1988 b). Glucose-induced insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose transport and uptake. Biochemical Journal 252, 733737.Google Scholar
Roberts, S. B., Savage, J., Coward, W. A., Chew, B. & Lucas, A. (1988). Energy expenditure and intake in infants born to lean and overweight mothers. New England Journal of Medicine 318, 461466.Google Scholar
Romijn, J. A., Klein, S., Coyle, E. F., Sidossis, L. S. & Wolfe, R. R. (1993). Strenuous endurance training increases lipolysis and triglyceride-fatty acid cycling at rest. Journal of Applied Physiology 75, 108113.Google Scholar
Rose, G. (1981). Strategy of prevention: lessons from cardiovascular disease. British Medical Journal 282, 18471851.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, M., Haskell, W. L., Solomon, R., Widstrom, A. & Reaven, G. M. (1983). Demonstration of a relationship between level of physical training and insulin stimulated glucose utilization in normal humans. Diabetes 32, 408411.Google Scholar
Ross, R. & Glomset, J. A. (1976). The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine 295, 369377, 420425.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. M. & Benditt, E. P. (1977). Aortic endothelial cell replication. I. Effects of age and hypertension in the rat. Circulation Research 41, 248255.Google Scholar
Shulman, G. I., Rothman, D. L., Jue, T., Stein, P., DeFronzo, R. A. & Shulman, R. G. (1990). Quantitation of muscle glycogen synthesis in normal subjects and subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. New England Journal of Medicine 322, 223228.Google Scholar
Slater, E. (1991). Insulin resistance and hypertension. Hypertension 18 (3), Suppl., 108114.Google Scholar
Soman, V. R., Koivisto, V. A., Deibert, D., Felig, P. & DeFronzo, R. A. (1979). Increased insulin sensitivity and insulin binding to monocytes after physical training. New England Journal of Medicine 301, 12001204.Google Scholar
Somers, V. K., Conway, J., Johnston, J. & Sleight, P. (1991). Effects of endurance training on baroreflex sensitivity and blood pressure in borderline hypertension. Lancet 337, 13631368.Google Scholar
Sørensen, T. I. A., Price, R. A., Stunkard, A. J. & Schulsinger, F. (1989). Genetics of obesity in adult adoptees and their biological siblings. British Medical Journal 298, 8790.Google Scholar
Sporik, R., Johnstone, J. H. & Cogswell, J. J. (1991). Longitudinal study of cholesterol values in 68 children from birth to 11 years of age. Archives of Disease in Childhood 66, 134137.Google Scholar
Staessen, J., Bulpitt, C. J., Thijs, L., Fagard, R., Joossens, J. V., van Hoof, R. & Amery, A. (1991). Pulse rate and sodium intake interact to determine blood pressure. American Journal of Hypertension 4, 107112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stamler, R., Stamler, J., Riedlinger, W. F., Algera, G. & Roberts, R. H. (1978). Weight and blood pressure: findings in hypertension screening of 1 million Americans. Journal of the American Medical Association 240, 16071610.Google Scholar
Steinberg, D. (1983). Lipoproteins and atherosclerosis: a look back and a look ahead. Arteriosclerosis 3, 283301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stout, R. W. (1968). Insulin-stimulated lipogenesis in arterial tissue in relation to diabetes and atheroma. Lancet 2, 702703.Google Scholar
Stout, R. W. (1991). Insulin as a mitogenic factor: role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Medicine 90, Suppl. 2A, 62S65S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stout, R. W. & Vallance-Owen, J. (1969). Insulin and atheroma. Lancet 1, 10781080.Google Scholar
Strong, J. P. & McGill, H. C. (1969). The pediatric aspects of atherosclerosis. Journal of Atherosclerosis Research 9, 251265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stunkard, A. J., Foch, T. T. & Hrubec, Z. (1986). A twin study of human obesity. Journal of the American Medical Association 256, 5154.Google Scholar
Sundram, K., Hayes, K. C. & Siru, O. H. (1994). Dietary palmitic acid results in lower serum cholesterol than does a lauric-myristic acid combination in normolipemic humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 841846.Google Scholar
Task Force on Blood Pressure Control in Children. (1987). Report of the second task force on blood pressure control in children — 1987. Pediatrics 79, 125.Google Scholar
Texon, M. (1980). Hemodynamic Basis of Atherosclerosis. New York, Hemisphere.Google Scholar
Texon, M. (1986). The hemodynamic basis of atherosclerosis. Further observations: the linear lesion. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 62, 875880.Google Scholar
Tran, Z. V. & Weltman, A. (1985). Differential effects of exercise on serum lipids and lipoprotein levels seen with changes in body weight — a meta analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 254, 919924.Google Scholar
van Hooft, I. M. S., Hofman, A., Grobbee, D. E. & Valkenburg, H. A. (1988). Change in blood pressure in offspring of parents with high or low blood pressure: the Dutch hypertension and offspring study. Journal of Hypertension 6, Suppl. 4, S594S596.Google Scholar
Virchow, R. (1858). Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre. Berlin: Hirschwald.Google Scholar
Voors, A. W., Webber, L. S. & Berenson, G. S. (1979). Time course studies of blood pressure in children — the Bogalusa heart study. American Journal of Epidemiology 109, 320334.Google Scholar
Webber, L. S., Voors, A. W., Srinivasan, S. R., Frerichs, R. R. & Berenson, G. S. (1979). Occurrence in children of multiple risk factors for coronary artery disease: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Preventive Medicine 8, 407418.Google Scholar
Weintraub, M. S., Rosen, Y., Otto, R., Eisenberg, S. & Breslow, J. L. (1989). Physical exercise conditioning in the absence of weight loss reduces fasting and postprandial triglyceride-rich lipoprotein levels. Circulation 79, 10071014.Google Scholar
Wong, N. D., Hei, T. K., Qaqundah, P. Y., Davidson, D. M., Bassin, S. L. & Gold, K. V. (1992). Television viewing and pediatric hypercholesterolemia. Pediatrics 90, 7579.Google Scholar
Wood, P. D., Haskell, W. L., Blair, S. N., Williams, P. T., Krauss, R. M., Lindgren, F. T., Albers, J. J., Ho, P. H. & Farquhar, J. W. (1983). Increased exercise level and plasma lipoprotein concentrations: a one-year, randomized, controlled study in sedentary, middle-aged men. Metabolism 32, 3139.Google Scholar
Wood, P. D., Stefanick, M. L., Dreon, D. M., Frey-Hewitt, B., Garay, S. C., Williams, P. T., Superko, H. R., Fortmann, S. P., Albers, J. J., Vranizan, K. M., Ellsworth, N. M., Terry, R. B. & Haskell, W. L. (1988). Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in overweight men during weight loss through dieting as compared with exercise. New England Journal of Medicine 319, 11731179.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1985 a). Blood Pressure Studies in Children. Technical Report Series No. 715. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1985 b). Sudden Cardiac Death. Technical Report Series No. 726. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Young, A. A., Bogardus, C., Wolfe-Lopez, D. & Mott, D. M. (1988). Muscle glycogen synthesis and disposition of infused glucose in humans with reduced rates of insulin-mediated carbohydrate storage. Diabetes 37, 303308.Google Scholar