Hostname: page-component-7bb8b95d7b-w7rtg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-09-26T03:15:52.406Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Materials Challenges in Present and Future Wind Energy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2011

Brian Hayman ,
Jakob Wedel-Heinen  and
Povl Brøndsted
Brian Hayman
Affiliation:
Det Norske Veritas AS and University of Oslo, Norway
Jakob Wedel-Heinen
Affiliation:
Det Norske Veritas, Danmark A/S, Denmark
Povl Brøndsted
Affiliation:
Risø-DTU, National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, The Technical University of Denmark, Denmark

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The main concept currently in use in wind energy involves horizontal-axis wind turbines with blades of fiber composite materials. This turbine concept is expected to remain as the major provider of wind power in the foreseeable future. However, turbine sizes are increasing, and installation offshore means that wind turbines will be exposed to more demanding environmental conditions. Many challenges are posed by the use of fiber composites in increasingly large blades and increasingly hostile environments. Among these are achieving adequate stiffness to prevent excessive blade deflection, preventing buckling failure, ensuring adequate fatigue life under variable wind loading combined with gravitational loading, and minimizing the occurrence and consequences of production defects. A major challenge is to develop cost-effective ways to ensure that production defects do not cause unacceptable reductions in equipment strength and lifetime, given that inspection of large wind power structures is often problematic.

Type
Research Article
Information
MRS Bulletin , Volume 33 , Issue 4: Harnessing Materials for Energy , April 2008 , pp. 343 - 353
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2008

References

1.Wallenius Wilhelmsen Logistics, “E/S Orcelle—Environmentally Sound Ship,” (Wallenius Wilhelmsen Logistics; www.walleniusmarine.com/qse.jsp?art_id=120) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
2.Danish Wind Industry Association, “Wind map of Western Europe,” (Danish Wind Industry Association; www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/euromap.htm) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
3.U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Effciency and Renewable Energy, “Wind Resource Maps,” (USDOE, EERE; www.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/windpoweringamerica/wind_maps.asp) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
4.U.S. Department of Energy, Renewable Resource Data Center, “Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the United States,” (USDOE, RRDC; http://rredc.nrel.gov/wind/pubs/atlas/maps.html) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
5.Archer, C.L., Jacobson, M.Z., J. Geophys. Res. 110, D12110 (2005).Google Scholar
6.International Wind Energy Development—World Market Update 2006 (BTM Consult ApS, March 2007).Google Scholar
7.Global Wind Energy Council, “Global Wind 2006 Report,” (GWEC, 2006; www.gwec.net/fleadmin/documents/Publications/gwec-2006_fnal_01.pdf) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
8. DONG Energy Web site; www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/default_ie.htm (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
9.ELSAMPROJEKT A/S, “Horns Rev. Offshore Wind Farm—Environmental Impact Assessment—Summary of EIA Report” (ELSAMPROJEKT A/S, Fredericia, Denmark, May 2000; www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/Miljoeforhold/pdf/Resume_eng.pdf) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
10. Vestas Wind Systems Web site; http://www.vestas.com/en/about-vestas/sustainability/wind-turbines-and-the-environment (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
11.Vestas Wind Systems, “Life Cycle Assessment of Offshore and Onshore Sited Wind Power Plants Based on Vestas V90–3.0 MW Turbines” (Vestas Wind Systems, Randers. Denmark, Ed. 2, July 2006; http://www.vestas.com/Admin/Public/Download.aspx?File=/Files/Flier/EN/Sustainability/LCA/LCAV90_juni_2006.pdf (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
12.Vestas Wind Systems, Environmental Impact of Wind Turbines: Energy Balances, http://www.vestas.com/Admin/Public/Download.aspx?File=/Files/Filer/EN/Sustainability/LCA/LCA_V80_2004_UK.pdf (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
13.Crawford, R.A., “Life-Cycle Energy Analysis of Wind Turbines—An Assessment of the Effect of Size on Energy Yield,” in Energy and Sustainability, Brebbia, C.A. and Popov, V., Eds., Transactions of the Wessex Institute, Ecology and the Environment (WIT Press, Wessex, UK, 2007); Vol. 105, p. 155.Google Scholar
14.American Wind Energy Association, Comparative Cost of Wind and Other Energy Sources (American Wind Energy Association, Washington, DC, 2001; www.awea.org); (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
15.Eggleston, E., AWEA staff, “What are Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)?” (American Wind Energy Association, Washington, DC; www.awea.org/faq/vawt.html) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
16. Kite Gen Web site; www.kitegen.com (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
17.International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 61400–1, Wind Turbines— Part 1, Design Requirements, ed. 3 (IEC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2005).Google Scholar
18.International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 61400–13, Wind Turbine Generator Systems—Part: 13, Measurement of Mechanical Loads (IEC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001).Google Scholar
19.International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 61400–23, Technical Specifcation, Wind Turbine Generator Systems—Part: 23, Full-Scale Structural Testing of Rotor Blades (IEC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001).Google Scholar
20.International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC WT 01, IEC system for Conformity Testing and Certifcation of Wind Turbines, Rules and Procedures (IEC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001).Google Scholar
21.Det Norske Veritas, Offshore Standard DNV-OS-J101 Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures (Det Norske Veritas, Høvik, Norway, 2004).Google Scholar
22.Det Norske Veritas, Offshore Standard DNV-OS-J102 Design and Manufacture of Wind Turbine Blades, Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines (Det Norske Veritas, Høvik, Norway, 2006).Google Scholar
23.Det Norske Veritas, Risø National Laboratory, Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines (Det Norske Veritas and Risø National Laboratory, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2002).Google Scholar
24.Guideline for the Certifcation of Wind Turbines (Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg, Germany, 2003, with Supplement, 2004).Google Scholar
25.Guideline for the Certifcation of Offshore Wind Turbines (Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg, Germany, 2005).Google Scholar
26.Skamris, C., Ed., Vestergaard, B., Wedel-Heinen, J., Halling, K.M., Sønderby, O., Kristensen, J.J., Pedersen, B., Brøndsted, P., Thomsen, C.L., Bjerregaard, E., Type Approval Scheme for Wind Turbines. Recommendation for Design Documentation and Test of Wind Tturbine Blades (Danish Energy Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2002).Google Scholar
27.Nijssen, R., doctoral thesis (KC-WMC and Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University, Delft, The Netherlands, 2006).Google Scholar
28.Sørensen, B.F., Jørgensen, E., Debel, C.P., Jensen, F.M., Jensen, H.M., Jacobsen, T.K., Halling, K., “Improved Design of Large Wind Turbine Blade of Fiber Composites Based on Studies of Scale Effects (Phase 1)—Summary Report,” (Report Risø-R-1390(EN), Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2004).Google Scholar
29.Brøndsted, P., Lilholt, H., Lystrup, A.A., Ann. Rev. Mater. Res. 35, 505 (2005).Google Scholar
30.Lilholt, H., Madsen, B., Andersen, T.L., Mikkelsen, L.P., Thygesen, A., Eds., Proc. 27th Risø Conference on Materials Science, Polymer composite materials for wind power turbines (Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 4–7 September 2006).Google Scholar
31.Wedel-Heinen, J., Tadich, J.K., Brokopf, C., Janssen, L.G.J., van Wingerde, A.M., van Delft, D.R.V., Kensche, C.W., Philippidis, T.P., Brøndsted, P., Dutton, A.G., Nijssen, R.P.L., Implementation of OPTIMAT in Technical Standards, OB_TG6_R002 rev. 8, ENK6-CT–2001–00552 PROJECT No: NNE5–2001–00174, OPTIMAT BLADES (2006).Google Scholar
32.Wedel-Heinen, J., Tadich, J.K., Proc. 27th Risø Conference on Materials Science, Polymer Composite Materials for Wind Power Turbines, 115 (Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2006).Google Scholar
33.Sørensen, B.F., Kirkegaard, P., Eng. Fract. Mech. 73, 2642 (2006).Google Scholar
34.Lundsgaard-Larsen, C., Sørensen, B.F., Berggreen, C., Østergaard, R.C., Proc. 27th Risø Conference on Materials Science, Polymer Composite Materials for Wind Power Turbines, (Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2006) p.375.Google Scholar
35.Sørensen, B.F., Branner, K., Stang, H., Jensen, H.M., Lund, E., Jacobsen, T.K., Halling, K.M., “Improved Design of Large Wind Turbine Blades of Fiber Composites (Phase 2)—Summary Report” (Report Risø-R-1526(EN), Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2005).Google Scholar
36.Jørgensen, E.R., Borum, K.K., McGugan, M., Thomsen, C.L., Jensen, F.M., Debel, C.P., Sørensen, B.F., “Full Scale Testing of Wind Turbine Blade to Failure—Flapwise Loading” (Report Risø-R-1392(EN), Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2004).Google Scholar
37.Kensche, C.W., Ed., “Fatigue of Materials and Components for Wind Turbine Rotor Blades” (Report EUR 16684, European Commission, Luxembourg, 1996).Google Scholar
38.Mayer, R.M., Ed., Design of Composite Structures against Fatigue (Mechanical Engineering Publications Ltd., Suffolk, UK, 1996).Google Scholar
39.Janssen, L.G.J., van Wingerde, A.M., Kensche, C.W., Philippidis, T.P, Brøndsted, P., Dutton, A.G., Nijssen, R.P.L., Krause, O., “Reliable Optimal Use of Materials for Wind Turbine Rotor Blades. Final Report (OPTIMAT BLADES)” (Report ECN-C-06–023, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2006).Google Scholar
40.de Smet, B.J., Bach, P.W., Database FACT: Fatigue of Composites for Wind Turbines. 3rd IEA Symp. Wind Turbine Fatigue (ECN, Petten, The Netherlands, 1994).Google Scholar
41.Delft University of Technology, The Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, “Optidat Database,” (TUD, ECN; www.kc-wmc.nl/optimatblades_optidat.php) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
42.Mandell, J.F., Samborsky, D.D., “DOE/MSU Composite Materials Fatigue Database. Test Methods, Materials, and Analysis” (Report SAND97–3002, UC-1210, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.DOE, MSU, “DOE/MSU Composite Material Fatigue Database March 2007 Update,” (DOE, MSU; www.coe.montana.edu/composites/documents/March Error!Hyperlink reference not valid.) (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
44.European Union, UpWind Project Web site; www.upwind.eu (accessed January 2008).Google Scholar
45.Mishnaevsky, L. Jr, Brøndsted, P., Proc. 27th Risø Conference on Materials Science, Polymer Composite Materials for Wind Power Turbines, 239 (Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, 2007).Google Scholar
46.Mishnaevsky, L. Jr, Brøndsted, P., Cyclic Loading Frequency Effect on the Damage Growth in the Low-Frequency Range. In Proceedings 239 (2006).Google Scholar
47.Åström, B.T., Manufacturing of Polymer Composites (Chapman and Hall, London, 1997).Google Scholar
48.Hayman, B., Berggreen, C., Tsouvalis, N., in Proceedings of MARSTRUCT 2007, The 1st International Conference on Marine Structures, Glasgow, United Kingdom, 12–14 March 2007 (Taylor & Francis 2007). pp. 435–449.Google Scholar
49.Short, G.J., Guild, F.J., Pavier, M.J, Compos. Struct. 58 (2), 249 (2002).Google Scholar
50.Hwang, S.F., Huang, S.M., Compos. Struct. 68, 157 (2005).Google Scholar
51.Berggreen, C., PhD degree thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark (2004).Google Scholar
52.Berggreen, C., Simonsen, B.C., J. Sandwich Struct. Mater 11 (7), 483 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Berggreen, C., Simonsen, B.C., Borum, K.K., J. Compos. Mater. 41 (4), 493 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54.Hayman, B., Berggreen, C., Pettersson, R., J. Sandwich Struct. Mater. 9, (4), 377 (2007).Google Scholar
55.Berggreen, C., Jensen, C., Hayman, B., in Proceedings of MARSTRUCT 2007, The 1st International Conference on Marine Structures, Glasgow, United Kingdom, 12–14 March 2007 (Taylor & Francis 2007) pp. 413–420.Google Scholar
56.Budiansky, B., Comput. Struct. 16 (1), 3 (1983).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57.Soutis, C., Curtis, P.T., Fleck, N.A., Proc. R. Soc. London A 440, 241 (1993).Google Scholar
58.Vedeld, K., MSc degree thesis, Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway (2007).Google Scholar
59.Hayman, B., J. Sandwich Struct. Mater. 9 (6), 571 (2007).Google Scholar
60.Federal Aviation Authority (FAA). Federal Aviation Regulations Part 23 Airworthiness standards: Normal, utility, acrobatic and commuter category airplanes. Sections 23.571, 23.572, and 23.573.Google Scholar
61.Hayman, B., in Theory and Applications of Sandwich Structures, Shenoi, R.A., Groves, A.S., Rajapakse, Y.D.S., Eds. (University of Southampton, Southampton, UK, 2005) p. 351.Google Scholar