¹ The building was located in Savar on the outskirts of Dhaka: see ‘Bangladesh mourns latest factory disaster’ (Asia Times, 25 April 2013), available at http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/SOU-03-250413.html (accessed 4 February 2019); ‘Rana Plaza: one year on from the Bangladesh factory disaster’ (The Guardian, 19 April 2014), available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/19/rana-plaza-bangladesh-one-year-on (accessed 4 February 2019). See further All Party Parliamentary Group on Bangladesh After Rana Plaza: A Report into the Readymade Garment Industry in Bangladesh (2013) (APPG Report), available at http://www.rochdaleonline.co.uk/uploads/f1/news/document/20131119_154658.pdf (accessed 4 February 2019); Anner, M, Bair, J and Blasi, J ‘Toward joint liability in global supply chains: addressing the root causes of labor violations in international subcontracting networks’ (2013) 35 Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 1Google Scholar at 1–2; Rühmkorf, A Corporate Social Responsibility, Private Law and Global Supply Chains (Edward Elgar, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar at pp 147–156. See also Das v George Weston Ltd [2017] ONSC 4129 at [81]–[98].

² Ibid.

³ See for example the judgments of the Superior Court of Delaware and the Ontario Supreme Court of Justice in Rahaman et al v JC Penney Corporation, Inc, The Children's Place and Wal-Mart Stores, Inc (2015) (Case 1:15-cv-00619-KBJ); Das v George Weston Ltd, above n 1.

⁴ APPG Report, above n 1, at 7 and 42. See generally Klein, N No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies (Flamingo, 2000)Google Scholar.

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¹¹ Richardson, above n 10, at 885.

¹² Gibbon, Bair and Ponte, above n 9, at 319; Ponte and Sturgeon, above n 9, at 327–328.

¹³ Campbell, C ‘The curse of the new: how the accelerating pursuit of the new is driving hyper-consumption’ in Ekström, KM (ed) Waste Management and Sustainable Consumption (Routledge, 2015) p 29Google Scholar at pp 39–40.

¹⁴ Anner, Bair and Blasi, above n 1; Taplin, IM ‘Who is to blame? A re-examination of fast fashion after the 2013 factory disaster in Bangladesh’ (2014) 10 Critical Perspectives on International Business 72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Social Europe Report No 3, ‘After Rana Plaza (January 2015), available at https://www.socialeurope.eu/book/ser-3-after-rana-plaza/ (accessed 4 February 2019).

¹⁵ In the EU, trade mark law has been substantially harmonised pursuant to Directive 89/104/EEC (now codified in Directive 2008/95/EC) (the EU Trade Mark Directive), which the Trade Marks Act 1994 (TMA 1994) implemented in the UK. Member States are required to implement the Recast Directive 2015/2436 (Recast Directive) by early 2019, though this will not significantly alter the law relevant to the issues addressed in this paper.

¹⁶ On marketing see Church, R and Godley, A ‘The emergence of modern marketing: international dimensions’ (2003) 45 Business History 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ On ‘goodwill’ see Commissioners of Inland Revenue v Muller & Co's Margarine [1901] AC 217 at 223–224. See further Bone, R ‘Hunting goodwill: a history of the concept of goodwill in trademark law’ (2006) 86 Boston University Law Review 547Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Gibbon, Bair and Ponte, above n 9, at 325–326. See further Froud, J, Leaver, A and Williams, K ‘New actors in a financialised economy and the remaking of capitalism’ (2007) 12 New Political Economy 339CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹ On the different kinds of branding see CA Corrado and JX Hao ‘Brands as productive assets: concepts, measurement and global trends’ (2014) WIPO Economic Research Working Paper No 13 at 10.

²⁰ WIPO 2013: World Intellectual Property Report: Brands – Reputation and Image in the Global Marketplace (WIPO Economics and Statistics Series, 2013) at 3, available at http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/944/wipo_pub_944_2013.pdf (accessed 4 February 2019).

²¹ Bostitch TM [1963] RPC 183 at 197; Case C-9/93 IHT v Ideal-Standard [1994] ECR I-2789 at [38]–[39].

²² Brennan, DJ ‘The trade mark and the firm’ [2006] IPQ 283Google Scholar; Burk, DL and McDonnell, BH ‘Trademarks and the boundaries of the firm’ (2010) 51 William & Mary Law Review 345Google Scholar.

²³ On the use of this metaphor to refer to this vulnerability of brands see for example Anner, Bair and Blasi, above n 1, at 4; Chon, M ‘Trademark goodwill as a public good: brands and innovations in corporate social responsibility’ (2017) 21 Lewis & Clark Law Review 277Google Scholar at 289.

²⁴ Mares, R ‘The limits of supply chain responsibility: a critical analysis of corporate responsibility instruments’ (2010) 79 Nordic Journal of International Law 193CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Talbot, L Great Debates in Company Law (Palgrave, 2014)Google Scholar at pp 108–137; Rühmkorf, above n 1.

²⁵ Hilton, S ‘The social value of brands’ in Clifton, R and Simmons, J (eds) Brands and Branding (The Economist in association with Profile Books, 2003)Google Scholar p 47 at p 55.

²⁶ ‘Bangladesh: British firms did not follow New Safety Regime for Clothing Production’ (The Daily Telegraph, 2 May 2013), available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/10034090/Bangladesh-British-firms-did-not-follow-new-safety-regime-for-clothing-production.html (accessed 4 February 2019); ‘Bangladesh: Rana Plaza architect says building never meant for factories’ (The Daily Telegraph, 3 May 2013), available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/10036546/Bangladesh-Rana-Plaza-architect-says-building-was-never-meant-for-factories.html (accessed 4 February 2019). See further Das v George Weston Ltd, above n 1, paras [81]–[98].

²⁷ APPG Report, above n 1, at 18.

²⁸ See above n 1.

²⁹ See above n 1.

³⁰ APPG Report, above n 1, at 14, citing McKinsey & Company ‘Bangladesh's ready-made garment landscape: the challenge of growth’ (2011).

³¹ APPB Report, above n 1, at 26–27.

³² APPB Report, above n 1, at 26–27.

³³ Azmeh, S and Nadvi, K ‘Asian firms and the restructuring of global value chains’ (2014) 23 International Business Review 707CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 711; Curran, L and Nadvi, K ‘Shifting trade preferences and value chain impacts in the Bangladesh textiles and garment industry’ (2015) 8 Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society 459CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 465–466.

³⁴ APPG Report, above n 1, at 20–22; Curran and Nadvi, above n 33, at 460–462.

³⁵ Bair and Palpacuer, above n 9.

³⁶ Social Europe Report, above n 14; Aizawa, M and Tripathi, S ‘Beyond Rana Plaza: next steps for the global garment industry and Bangladeshi manufacturers’ (2015) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 145CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stanwick, P and Stanwick, S ‘The garment industry in Bangladesh: a human rights challenge’ (2015) 2 Journal of Business & Economic Policy 40Google Scholar; Sinkovics, N, Hoque, SF and Sinkovics, RR ‘Rana Plaza collapse aftermath: are CSR compliance and auditing pressures effective?’ (2016) 29 Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 617CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jacobs, BW and Singhal, VR ‘The effect of the Rana Plaza disaster on shareholder wealth of retailers: implications for sourcing strategies and supply chain governance’ (2017) 49–51 Journal of Operations Management 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ See ‘Bangladesh disaster crushes owner's ideal of clothes with a conscience’ (Reuters, 16 June 2013), available at http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-bangladesh-collapse-idUKBRE95F0I320130616 (accessed 4 February 2019).

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁹ On how a ‘buyer-driven dynamic’ seems to have emerged in global value chains in most industries see Gibbon, Bair and Ponte, above n 9, at 320–322.

⁴⁰ Klein, above n 4.

⁴¹ Streeck, W ‘Citizens as consumers: considerations on the new politics of consumption’ (2012) 76 New Left Review 27Google Scholar.

⁴² Campbell, above n 13.

⁴³ Berger, S ‘Toward a third industrial divide?’ in Osterman, Paul (ed) Economy in Society: Essays in Honour of Michael J Piore (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2012) p 65Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Langlois, RN ‘Modularity in technology and organization’ (2002) 49 Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ponte and Sturgeon, above n 9, at 210.

⁴⁵ Offer, A The Challenge of Affluence: Self-Control and Well-Being in the United States and Britain Since 1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) p 117Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Barrientos, S et al. ‘Decent work in global production networks: framing the policy debate’ (2011) 150 International Labour Review 299CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 302; Drebes, MJ ‘Including the “other”: power and postcolonialism as underrepresented perspectives in the discourse on corporate social responsibility’ (2016) 42 Critical Sociology 105CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 106.

⁴⁷ Ponte and Sturgeon, above n 9, at 201–202.

⁴⁸ Azmeh and Nadvi, above n 33.

⁴⁹ APPG Report, above n 1, at 7; Taplin, above n 14, at 73.

⁵⁰ This can be seen in the division of the retail price for a T shirt among parties in the value chain: ‘What does that $14 Shirt really cost?’ ( Maclean's, 1 May 2013), available at http://www.macleans.ca/economy/business/what-does-that-14-shirt-really-cost/ (accessed 4 February 2019).

⁵¹ Anner, Bair and Blasi, above n 1; Drebes, above n 46.

⁵² G Gereffi, J Humphrey and T Sturgeon ‘The governance of global supply chains’ (2005) 12 Review of International Political Economy 78 at 81–88; Gibbon, Bair and Ponte, above n 9, at 319–326; Gereffi and Lee, above n 8, at 25–26; Ponte and Sturgeon, above n 9, at 200–210; Lee and Gereffi, above n 5, at 320–322.

⁵³ This analysis builds on the market and firm dichotomy associated with Ronald Coase: Coase, RH ‘The nature of the firm’ (1937) 4 Economic NS 386CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See Macneil, I ‘Contracts: adjustments of long-term economic relations under classical, neoclassical and relational contract law’ (1978) 72 Northwestern University Law Review 854Google Scholar; Williamson, OE ‘Transaction-cost economics: the governance of contractual relations’ (1979) 22 Journal of Law and Economics 233CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 83–84 and 86–87.

⁵⁵ Langlois, above n 44.

⁵⁶ Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 84–87.

⁵⁷ Langlois, above n 7, at 370–376; Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 85.

⁵⁸ Gibbon, P and Ponte, S ‘Quality conventions, standards and the governance of global value chains’ (2005) 34 Economy and Society 1Google Scholar; Gibbon, Bair and Ponte, above n 9, at 324–326; Chon, M ‘Marks of rectitude’ (2009) 77 Fordham Law Review 2311Google Scholar at 2317–2329; Ponte and Sturgeon, above n 9, at 210–216.

⁵⁹ Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 85.

⁶⁰ Richardson, above n 10, at 888; Langlois, RN and Foss, NJ ‘Capabilities and governance: the rebirth of production in the theory of economic organization’ (1999) 52 Kyklos 201CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶¹ Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 86.

⁶² Williamson, above n 53, at 239 and 246–247.

⁶³ Gereffi, Humphrey and Sturgeon, above n 52, at 80.

⁶⁴ Bair and Palpacuer, above n 9, at S2.

⁶⁵ Chon, above n 23. See further Kysar, DA ‘Preferences for processes: the process/product distinction and the regulation of consumer choice’ (2004) 118 Harvard Law Review 525CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁶ Bair and Palpacuer, above n 9, at S2.

⁶⁷ Talbot, L ‘Trying to save the world with company law? Some problems’ (2016) 36 LS 513Google Scholar at 518.

⁶⁸ Wilkins, above n 6; Church, R and Clark, C ‘Product development of branded, packaged household goods in Britain, 1870–1914: Colman's, Reckitt's and Lever's’ (2001) 2 Enterprise and Society 503CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁹ An ‘undertaking’ includes a company or any other entity or organisation that operates as a cohesive unit: IHT v Ideal-Standard, above n 21, paras [38]–[39].

⁷⁰ Desai, DR and Waller, S Weber ‘Brands, competition, and antitrust law’ in Desai, DR, Lianos, I and Waller, S Weber (eds) Brands, Competition Law and IP (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) p 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar at pp 77–83.

⁷¹ Marchand, R Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business (University of California Press, 2001) pp 7–47Google Scholar; Gorman, C ‘The role of trademark law in the history of US visual identity design, c 1860–1960’ (2017) 30 Journal of Design History 371CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷³ Andrew (John) v Kuehnrich (1913) 30 RPC 677 (CA). See da Silva Lopes, T and Casson, M ‘Entrepreneurship and the development of global brands’ (2007) 81 Business History Review 651CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 655.

⁷⁴ Recast Directive, Art 10(2)(b) and 10(2)(c); TMA 1994, ss 10(2) and 10(3). On Art 10(2)(b) see Case C-251/95 Sabel v Puma [1997] ECR I-6013; Case C-39/97 Canon v MGM [1998] ECR I-5507; Case C-342/97 Lloyd Schuhfabrik v Klijsen Handel [1999] ECR I-3819; on Art 10(2)(c), see Case C-252/07 Intel v CPM [2008] ECR I-8823; Case C-487/07 L'Oréal v Bellure [2009] ECR I-5185; Case C-252/12 Specsavers v Asda [2013] Bus LR 1277.

⁷⁵ Havana Cigar v Oddenino [1923] 1 Ch 179 (CA); Sales Affiliates v Le Jean [1947] Ch 295 (HC); Premier Luggage & Bags v Premier Company [2002] EWCA Civ 387. This has been extended to include third parties’ use of a trade mark as a keyword to trigger ‘pop-up’ advertising, sponsored links or other pre-arranged responses when consumers use the sign in question as a search term online: Case C-236/08-238/08 Google France v Louis Vuitton [2010] ECR I-2417; Case C-323/09 Interflora v Marks & Spencer [2012] Bus LR 1440.

⁷⁶ Ibid.

⁷⁷ See Campbell, above n 13.

⁷⁸ Hilton, B, Choi, CJ and Chen, S ‘The ethics of counterfeiting in the fashion industry: quality, credence and profits issues’ (2004) 55 Journal of Business Ethics 345CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pouillard, V and Kuldova, T ‘Interrogating intellectual property rights in post-war fashion and design’ (2017) 30 Journal of Design History 343CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁹ On the importance of speed of communication in the marketing of fashion products see Raustiala, K and Sprigman, C ‘The piracy paradox: innovation and intellectual property in fashion design’ (2006) 92 Virginia Law Review 1687Google Scholar at 1728–1732.

⁸⁰ Raustiala and Sprigman, above n 79, at 1689 and 1700–1704; Marshall, AM ‘Free fashion’ (2013) 17 Marquette Intellectual Property Law Review 123Google Scholar at 126–128.

⁸¹ Raustiala and Sprigman, above n 79, at 1718–1728.

⁸² Case C-59/08 Copad v Christian Dior Couture [2009] ECR I-3421 at [24]–[26].

⁸³ Swann, JB, Aaker, DA and Reback, M ‘Trademarks and marketing’ (2001) 91 Trademark Reporter 787Google Scholar at 796–797; Beebe, B ‘Intellectual property law and the sumptuary code’ (2010) 123 Harvard Law Review 809Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ I Lianos ‘Brands, product differentiation and EU competition law’ in Desai, Lianos and Weber Waller, above n 70, p 146 at pp 148–152.

⁸⁵ Major Bros v Franklin [1908] 1 KB 712 (HC); Primark v Lollypop Clothing [2001] FSR 637 (HC); IHT v Ideal-Standard, above n 21, at [38]–[39].

⁸⁶ Primark v Lollypop Clothing, above n 85.

⁸⁷ A trade mark guarantees that ‘all the goods or services bearing it have been manufactured or supplied under the control of a single undertaking which is responsible for their quality’: Case C-206/02 Arsenal FC v Matthew Reed [2002] ECR I-10273 at [48] and [58].

⁸⁸ The ‘decisive factor is the possibility of control over the quality of goods, not the actual exercise of that control’: IHT v Ideal-Standard, above n 21, at [38].

⁸⁹ Bostitch TM, above n 21, at 197; IHT v Ideal-Standard, above n 21, at [37]–[38].

⁹⁰ Scandecor Development v Scandecor Marketing [2001] ETMR 800 (HL) at [19].

⁹¹ Recast Directive, Art 15; TMA 1994, s 12.

⁹² Case C-355/96 Silhouette v Hartlauer [1998] ECR I-4799; Case C-173/98 Sebago v GB-Unic [1999] ECR I-4103; Joined Cases C-414/99-C-416/99 Zino Davidoff v A & G Imports [2001] ECR I-8691.

⁹³ On this ‘territorial price discrimination’ see Maskus, KE ‘Economic perspectives on exhaustion and parallel imports’ in Calboli, I and Lee, E (eds) Research Handbook on Intellectual Property Exhaustion and Parallel Imports (Edward Elgar, 2016) p 106CrossRefGoogle Scholar at pp 112–113.

⁹⁴ Recast Directive, Art 15(2); TMA 1994, s 12(2).

⁹⁵ Case C-427/93 Bristol-Myers Squibb v Paranova [1996] ECR I-3457; Case C-348/04 Boehringer Ingelheim v Swingward (No 2) [2007] ECR-3391; Case C-276/05 Wellcome v Paranova [2008] ECR I-10479. Much of the case law on these rights relates to pharmaceutical products.

⁹⁶ Case C-337/95 Parfums Christian Dior v Evora [1997] ECR I-6013; Case C-59/08 Copad v Christian Dior Couture [2009] ECR I-3421.

⁹⁷ Ibid.

⁹⁸ Cosmetic Warriors v Amazon [2014] EWHC 181 (Ch).

⁹⁹ Vandenbergh, MP ‘The new Wal-Mart effect: the role of private contracting in global governance’ (2007) 54 UCLA Law Review 913Google Scholar. See further Rühmkorf, above n 1, pp 73–92.

¹⁰⁰ On product and process characteristics, see above n 65.

¹⁰¹ Adams v Cape Industries [1990] Ch 433 (CA); VTB Capital v Nutritek [2013] UKSC 5.

¹⁰² Adams v Cape Industries, ibid; Lungowe v Vedanta Resources [2017] EWCA Civ 1528, paras [67]–[90].

¹⁰³ Chandler v Cape Industries [2012] EWCA Civ 525.

¹⁰⁴ Lungowe v Vedanta Resources, above n 102, at [83].

¹⁰⁵ Lucky Alame v Royal Dutch Shell [2018] EWCA Civ 191 at [89] and [140].

¹⁰⁶ Such concerns influenced the response of some brand owners to the Rana Plaza disaster: ‘US retailers see big risk in safety plan for factories in Bangladesh’ (The New York Times, 22 May 2013), available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/23/business/legal-experts-debate-us-retailers-risks-of-signing-bangladesh-accord.html (accessed 4 February 2019).

¹⁰⁷ Baughen, SJ Human Rights and Corporate Wrongs: Closing the Governance Gap (Edward Elgar, 2015) pp 212–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ See for example the Modern Slavery Act 2015, s 54(4).

¹⁰⁹ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights ‘Guiding principles on business and human rights: implementing the United Nations “protect, respect and remedy” framework’ (2011).

¹¹⁰ Guiding Principles 17–21.

¹¹¹ Cassel, D ‘Outlining the case for a common law duty of care of business to exercise human rights due diligence’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 179CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹² cf Lucky Alame v Royal Dutch Shell, above n 105, at [89] and [140]. On the scope for action by or on behalf of consumers see Rühmkorf, above n 1, pp 93–111.

¹¹³ See above n 23.

¹¹⁴ On the categorisation of value chains, see above n 54.

¹¹⁵ On complexity in transactions, see above n 56.

¹¹⁶ Hemphill, TA and White, GO III ‘The world economic forum and Nike: emerging “shared responsibility” and institutional control models for achieving a socially responsible global supply chain?’ (2016) 1 Business and Human Rights Journal 307CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹⁸ APPB Report, above n 1, at 12.

¹¹⁹ This dilution is illustrated in the slogan of the Clean Clothes Campaign in response to the Rana Plaza disaster of ‘Brands pay up now!!’: see https://cleanclothes.org/news/2013/05/24/activists-protest-fashion-brands-failure-to-pay-bangladesh-disaster-victims-compensation (accessed 4 February 2019).

¹²⁰ Chon, above n 23, at 297.

¹²¹ Chon, M ‘More and more(s): certification in global value chains’ in Calboli, I and Lee, E (eds) Trademark Protection and Territoriality Challenges in a Global Economy (Edward Elgar, 2014) p 79Google Scholar at p 85.

¹²² On Fairtrade, see http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/What-is-Fairtrade/Using-the-FAIRTRADE-Mark (accessed 4 February 2019).

¹²³ See for example the ‘Cocoa life’ certification scheme set up by Mondolez International: https://www.cocoalife.org/ (accessed 4 February 2019).

¹²⁴ Chon, above n 58, at 2316.

¹²⁵ Palpacuer, above n 8, at 411.

¹²⁶ Ibid.

¹²⁷ See above nn 37–38.

¹²⁸ See above n 36.

¹²⁹ As with the ‘Lush’ brand: see above at n 98.

¹³⁰ See above at n 65.

¹³¹ Anner, Bair and Blasi, above n 1.

¹³² Drebes, above n 46.

¹³³ Palpacuer, above n 8, at 411–443; Sinkovics, Hoque and Sinkovics, above n 36.