¹ See Doering, Otto C., “Government in Sarawak Under Charles Brooke”, Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS) 39, no. 2 (1966): 97Google Scholar.

² For a description of the various ethnic groups of Sarawak see Harrisson, Tom, ed., The Peoples of Sarawak (Kuching: Sarawak Museum, 1959)Google Scholar; and Jackson, James C., Sarawak: A geographical survey of a developing state (London: University of London Press, 1968)Google Scholar. For a general introduction to the Sarawak Malays see Goatley, John, “The Malays”, in The Peoples of Sarawak, ed. Harrisson, Tom, pp. 103–113Google Scholar.

³ See ‘The Census’ in Sarawak Gazette, 15 December 1871Google Scholar; Noakes, J.L., “Sarawak and Brunei: A Report on 1947 Population Census”, Sarawak Museum Journal 5, no. 3 (n.s.) no. 18 (o.s.) (11 1951)Google Scholar; and Jones, L.W., Sarawak: Report on the Census of Population Taken on 15th June, 1960 (Kuching: Government Printers, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁴ See Jackson, , Sarawak, p. 48Google Scholar.

⁵ Hammond, R.W., “Report on Education in Sarawak”, Typescript, Sarawak State Archives, 1937, pp. 18–19Google Scholar.

⁶ According to the first post-war population census of 1947 the illiteracy rates were as follows: Malay — 85 per cent; Melanau — 91 per cent; Sea Dayak — 98 per cent; Land Dayak — 93 per cent; other indigenous — 98 per cent; and Chinese — 66 per cent. See Noakes, , “1947 Population Census”, p. 635Google Scholar.

⁷ Keppel, Henry, The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy: With Extracts from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq., Vol. I (London: Chapman and Hall, 1946), p. 79Google Scholar.

⁸ Jacob, G.L., The Raja of Sarawak: An Account of Sir James Brooke, K.C.B., LL.D., Given Chiefly Through Letters and Journals, Vol. I (London: MacMillan, 1876), p. 188Google Scholar.

⁹ Ibid., p. 13.

¹⁰ Brooke, Charles, Queries; Past, Present & Future (London: The Planet, 1907), p. 4Google Scholar.

¹¹ Baring-Gould, S. and Bampfylde, C.A., A History of Sarawak under its Two White Rajahs (London: Henry Sotheranm, 1909), p. 390Google Scholar.

¹² Brooke, C., Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. II (London: Tinsley Bros., 1866), p. 326Google Scholar.

¹³ Windt, Harry De, My Restless Life (London: Grant Richards, 1909), p. 57Google Scholar. Also see letter of 7 February 1883 from the Rajah to the Reverend Father Thomas Jackson, Superior of the Borneo Roman Catholic Mission, Kuching, whereby the Rajah after granting permission for the establishment of a Roman Catholic School in Kanowit warned the missionaries “not to try and obtain converts among the Mohamedans or Malays”. 2nd Rajah's Letters December 1882 to June 1885.

¹⁴ Brooke, , Ten Years, p. 327Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Brooke, , Queries, pp. 11–12Google Scholar.

¹⁶ James Brooke felt it more desirable to rule with the assistance of the native rulers for “it insures the independence of the native princes, and may advance the inhabitants further in the scale of civilization by means of this very independence”. See Jacob, , The Raja of Sarawak, p. 179Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Rawlins, Joan, Sarawak 1839–1963 (London: MacMillan, 1972), p. 127Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Yin, Loh Chee, “Pieces from the Brooke Past — XXIII: The Malay Language”, Sarawak Gazette, 31 05 1966Google Scholar. The Rajah stressed the importance of the Malay language which “is to be the standard Court language”, to his officers who “will find their power and influence greatly depend on their knowledge of and efficiency in it”. Order issued June 1870, p. 11. Orders which have not since been cancelled issued by H.H. The Rajah of Sarawak, or with his sanction. Vol. I, from 1863 to 1890, inclusive. Kuching: ‘Sarawak Gazette’ Office, 1891.

¹⁹ Pringle, Robert, “The Brookes of Sarawak: Reformers in spite of themselves”, Sarawak Museum Journal 19, nos. 38–39 (n.s.) (07–12 1971), p. 71Google Scholar.

²⁰ See the Rajah, 's speeches to the Malay school pupils on the occasion of their annual prize distribution ceremonies in Sarawak Gazette, 1 09 1887Google Scholar; 1 December 1888; and 1 July 1915.

²¹ Brooke, Sylvia (H.H. The Ranee of Sarawak), The Three White Rajas (London: Cassell, 1939), p. 66Google Scholar.

²² Speech by H.H., The Rajah addressing the members in Malay, Council Negri, 25th Triennial Meeting, 29 April 1937, in Sarawak Gazette, Supplement, 1 05 1937, translationGoogle Scholar.

²³ Pringle, , “The Brookes of Sarawak”, p. 72Google Scholar.

²⁴ For a discussion on the structure of Malay society in Sarawak see Haji, Abang DatukPuteh, Abang Yusuf, “Kampong Scenes: The Malay Way of Life”, Sarawak Gazette, 31 12 1960Google Scholar; and Beberapa Segi Adat Perkhawinan Orang-Orang Melayu Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1964)Google Scholar.

²⁵ Low, Hugh, Sarawak: Its Inhabitants and Productions (London: Richard Bentley, New Burlington Street, 1848), p. 138Google Scholar. For comparisons with the Malays of the Peninsula see Stevenson, Rex, Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policy Towards the Malays, 1875–1906 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975)Google Scholar; and also Fook Seng, Philip Loh, “British Educational Strategy in the Malay States, 1874–1940” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1970Google Scholar; Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1971).

²⁶ “Notices of the City of Borneo and Its Inhabitants, Made During the Voyage of the American Brig Himmaleh in the Indian Archipelago, in 1837”, Chinese Repository 7 (1838): 191Google Scholar, quoted in Pringle, Robert, Rajahs and Rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak (London: MacMillan, 1970), p. 62Google Scholar.

²⁷ James Brooke's journal entry dated 19 September 1839, quoted in Keppel, , Dido, Vol. I, p. 80Google Scholar.

²⁸ See Puteh, Abang Yusuf, “Kampong Scenes: The Malay Way of Life”Google Scholar.

²⁹ The middle class Malays who were educated also became teachers serving mostly in the Government Malay schools in the rural areas.

³⁰ ‘Outstation’ was the term commonly used in Government to mean outposts outside Kuching (capital).

³¹ Puteh, Abang Yusuf, “Social Stratification (as it used to be)”, Sarawak Museum Journal, 31 12 1961, pp. 272–73Google Scholar.

³² Puteh, Abang Yusuf, “Kampong Scenes: The Malay Way of Life”Google Scholar.

³³ See Goatley, John, “The Malays”, p. 103Google Scholar; and Jackson, , Sarawak, pp. 47–48Google Scholar.

³⁴ See Harrisson, Tom, The Malays of South-West Sarawak before Malaysia: A Socio-Ecological Survey (London: MacMillan, 1970), passimGoogle Scholar. Although this study was conducted in the late 1950s, it threw some light on the backward conditions of the Malays of this area which were worse in pre-war days.

³⁵ See Sarawak Gazette, 1 10 and 1 06 1931Google Scholar; and Sarawak Administrative Report, 1933, p. 13Google Scholar.

³⁶ Low, , Sarawak, pp. 138–39Google Scholar. Also Runciman, Steven, The White Rajahs: A History of Sarawak from 1841 to 1946 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), p. 214Google Scholar.

³⁷ Malay girls received religious education from their parents or other close family members in the privacy of their homes.

³⁸ See MS Report from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 6 January 1849. United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (USPG) Archives.

³⁹ MS Letter from the Reverend W.B. Wright to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 5 September and 7 November 1848. USPG Archives.

⁴⁰ MS Letter from the Reverend FT. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 26 March and 2 May 1849. USPG Archives.

⁴¹ Reverend Wright and Reverend McDougall had disagreements about the running of the Day School, and the former was also dissatisfied with the living arrangements in the Mission House which was shared by both families. Reverend Wright suggested to the Borneo Church Mission Institute (B.C.M.I.) Committee in London that he be reassigned to an outstation post, preferably among the Dayaks, but this request was rejected and considered his services terminated when he decided to withdraw from the teaching duties in the Day School. See MS Letter from the Reverend W.B. Wright to the Reverend CD. Brereton, 23 January 1849. USPG Archives. On the part of Reverend McDougall he blamed the poor attendance of the school on Reverend Wright's knowledge of Malay which “was too poor to keep the scholars interested” and the latter's apparent lack of understanding of local Malay customs “that Malay women and girls would not be taught by a man or use the man's entrance….” See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 24 February 1849. USPG Archives.

⁴² He wrote a letter to the Committee of the B.C.M.I. in 1851 regarding the conversion of the Malays: “No direct proselytism can, or ought to be, attempted with them in their present state.” MS Letter from the Reverend FT. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 15 April 1851. USPG Archives.

⁴³ MS Letter from James Brooke to the Reverend F.T. McDougall, 28 January 1851. USPG Archives.

⁴⁴ MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 15 August 1851. USPG Archives. But he cautioned that “we cannot and must not attempt any direct missionary teaching” but assured the Committee of the B.C.M.I. of “the fact of its [the school] being under our technical superintendence will remove much prejudice from the Malay mind and keep up their respect for members of the Mission….”

⁴⁵ See MS Report from W.W. Nicholls to the Reverend FT. McDougall, 16 September and 17 November 1851. USPG Archives. Reverend McDougall appointed William Ward Nicholls of Bishop's College, Calcutta, who arrived in April 1851, to take charge of this school. Reverend McDougall himself remarked as to the slow development of the school which “is not increasing in numbers as was hoped”. See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 11 November 1851. USPG Archives.

⁴⁶ See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 14 July 1851; and MS Letter from the Reverend Walter Chambers to the Reverend FT. McDougall, 23 April 1852. USPG Archives.

The Malay Datus were the traditional leaders of the Malay community. The Datu Patinghi, the Datu Bandar, and the Datu Temenggong were the three local Malay leaders acknowledged by James Brooke. The Datu Patinghi controlled the Malays on the left-hand branch of the Sarawak River while the Datu Bandar the right-hand branch. The Datu Temenggong dominated the Malays of the coastal areas. The other Datus were the Datu Hakim who was responsible for judicial matters affecting the community and the Datu Imaum acting as a religious authority. See Baring-Gould, and Bampfylde, , A History of Sarawak, p. 207Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 13 and 31 May 1852. USPG Archives; and MS Letter from W.W. Nicholls to the Reverend F.T. McDougall, 14 May 1852. USPG Archives.

⁴⁸ See MS Letter from W.W. Nicholls to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 19 October 1852. USPG Archives.

⁴⁹ For the said proposal by the students see MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 1 January 1849. USPG Archives.

⁵⁰ The public Day School in the Court House held lessons from seven to half past eight in the morning and from three to five o'clock in the afternoon. See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 15 August 1851. USPG Archives.

⁵¹ See MS Report from W.W. Nicholls to the Reverend FT. McDougall, 16 September and 17 November 1851. USPG Archives.

⁵² Reverend McDougall remarked unflatteringly the work of the Hadjis in this manner: “all they ever teach is enough of the Arabic character to enable children to chant the Koran”. See MS Letter from the Reverend F.T. McDougall to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 13 May 1852. USPG Archives.

⁵³ Ibid. However, Reverend Wright in his report on the Day School mentioned that the Muslim pupils attended the school only after finishing their religious instructions from the Hadjis. See MS Letter from the Reverend W.B. Wright to the Reverend T.F. Stooks, 7 November 1848. USPG Archives

⁵⁴ From 1886 onwards “there were no religious restrictions for the admission of day boys, though only Christians, and those wishing to become Christians were admitted as boarders”. Taylor, Brian and Heyward, P.M., The Kuching Anglican Schools (Kuching: Lee Ming Press, 1973), p. 13Google Scholar.

The Anglican Mission Boys' School was often referred to as the ‘S.P.G. School’ and later about the turn of the century the name ‘St. Thomas'’ was adopted.

⁵⁵ See H.H. The Rajah's Order Book 1863 to 1890, p. 270; and Sarawak Gazette, 1 10 1886Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Baring-Gould, and Bampfylde, , A History of Sarawak, p. 441Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Brooke, Margaret A.L., The Ranee, My Life in Sarawak (London: Methuen & Co., 1913), pp. 157–61Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ In a later recollection, the Ranee described Jawi (Malay script) as “lovely characters, but oh, so difficult to write properly”. Margaret, The Ranee, Good Morning and Good Night (London: Constable, 1934), p. 104Google Scholar.

Inchi Sawal was a renown scholar of Malay and the author of the first known piece of classical Malay literature in Sarawak, the Hikayat Panglima Nikosa, written in Jawi script and published in 1876. It was a work of fiction set in pre-Brooke Sarawak about the exploits of a local Malay hero, but more significant was the fact that it emphasized “the value of education and the advantage of agriculture”. See Lockard, Craig, From Kampung to City: A Social History of Kuching, Malaysia, 1820–1970 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, Center for South East Asian Studies, Monograph No. 75, 1987), p. 63Google Scholar; and also Hikayat Panglima Nikosa: The Story of Panglima Nikosa, trans. Thomas, P.L. with an Introduction and Notes by R.H.W. Reece and P.L. Thomas (Kuching: Persatuan Kesusasteraan Sarawak, 1983)Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Brooke, , My Life in Sarawak, p. 162Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Ibid.

⁶¹ Ibid., p. 163. Sarawak Gazette, 2 07 1883Google Scholar.

⁶² See Brooke, , My Life in Sarawak, p. 163Google Scholar.

⁶³ Sarawak Gazette, 2 07 1883Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ The enrolment over the years of the Abang Kasim School was promising.

See Brooke, , My Life in Sarawak, p. 164Google Scholar. No date of establishment was mentioned about this new school but the Ranee only gave a biographical account of its founder. Lockard puts it “about 1892” and it only appeared in the Gazette of 1 August 1894. See Lockard, C.A., “The South East Asian Town in Historical Perspective: A Social History of Kuching, Malaysia, 1820–1970” (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1973), Vol. I, p. 194Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ A Malay school called the Inche Boyong School was reported to be in existence as early as 1851 and it raced against the St. Thomas' School (Anglican) in the annual Regatta. In 1873, A Datu's School was mentioned “as one of the educational institutions in Kuching”, indicating a positive response to an appeal made by the Rajah earlier that year to a group of Malay headmen that the Government was willing to provide teachers and financial assistance if any Malay schools were formed. The Gazette mentioned a day school where Malay and English were taught to the Dayak members of the Rangers and stated that by 1876 thirty-four of them were literate in Malay and four in English out of a total of 150.

For the Inche Boyong School see McDougall, Harriette, Sketches of Our Life at Sarawak (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1882), p. 203Google Scholar, and Sarawak Education Department, “Outline of the History of Education in Sarawak”, Jernal Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Cawangan Sarawak (06 1980), p. 12Google Scholar; for the Datu's School refer to Lockard, C.A., “The South East Asian Town”, Vol. I, p. 139Google Scholar, and Sarawak Gazette, 3 01 1873Google Scholar; and regarding the school for the Rangers see Sarawak Gazette, 3 01 1876, and 15 03 1877Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Sarawak Gazette, 2 07 1883Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Sarawak Gazette, 1 08 1889Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ See Sarawak Gazette, under the headings ‘Prize Distribution’ or similar title during the reign of Charles Brooke, 1868–1917.

⁶⁹ Sarawak Gazette, 1 08 1889 and 1 11 1888Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ See Sarawak Gazette, 1 08 1894Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Until the opening of the Sekolah Permaisuri in 1930 which was the first Malay school for girls, none of the Malay schools had any female pupils though some girls did attend together with the boys especially in the outstations but this was usually the exception rather than the rule. A Malay notable in 1894 suggested a school for girls but it remained merely a suggestion. See Sarawak Gazette, 1 12 1894Google Scholar.

⁷² In 1894 five Malay boys were reported attending the Mission school, that of St. Thomas'. Sarawak Gazette, 1 08 1894Google Scholar.

⁷³ Sarawak Gazette, 1 02 1901Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ H.H. The Rajah's Letters April 1901 to August 1906. Letter dated 18 May 1904 from Charles Brooke to Father Von Mens of the Roman Catholic Mission, Kuching.

⁷⁵ Sarawak Gazette, 1 11 1902Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ See Sarawak Gazette, 4 05 1906Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Sarawak Gazette, 1 02 1901Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ The Sarawak Gazette first appeared on 26 August 1870 and functioned as a semi-official organ of the Brooke Government, financially dependent on it with a serving Government Officer as its editor. Before the publication of the dry and official Sarawak Government Gazette in 1908, it carried all official proclamations side by side with articles on non-official subjects written by serving officers especially those from the outstations as well as contributions from the general public. It was not uncommon to find works that were critical of the government. Little by way of censorship was practised indicating its independent nature and this gave the Gazette a lively character that provided a wealth of information about Sarawak's past.

⁷⁹ Sarawak Gazette, 15 03 1877Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Ibid.

⁸¹ Sarawak Gazette, 1 06 1887Google Scholar.

⁸² Pringle, , “The Brookes of Sarawak”, p. 72Google Scholar. The Chinese students were no longer mentioned in its annual prize distribution ceremonies. A plausible explanation for the absence of the Chinese in the Government Lay School was that the Chinese after 1912 had a vernacular school of their own, namely the Hokkien Free School established by the Sarawak Chinese Association.

⁸³ Sarawak Gazette, 1 10 1925Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ See Sarawak Gazette, 22 09 1888Google Scholar; 1 August 1889; 1 August 1894; 1 July 1904; 2 August 1905; 4 May 1906; and 16 July 1913; and also the confidential reports from the Resident First Division to H.H. The Rajah in His Highness The Rajah Confidential covering the years 1904–1906 (Vol. I) and 1911–13 (Vol. II). Most of these school reports contained enrolment figures, examination performances, and also included suggestions and recommendations to the schools' further well-being. It was not surprising to note that the Rajah preferred an inspection of his Malay schools and the Government Lay School by a Roman Catholic priest to the more established Anglican school personnel for the Rajah had a great admiration and confidence in their work. See Ward, A.B., Rajah's Servant (Data Paper No. 61), Southeast Asia Program, Department of Asian Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 11 1966), p. 167Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ See for instance Sarawak Gazette, 1 03 1883Google Scholar; 1 September 1887; 1 December 1888; 1 September 1892; 1 September 1897; 1 July 1898; 1 August 1899; 2 July 1903; 1 July 1904; 2 July 1906; 1 July 1908; 1 July 1909; 1 July 1910; 1 July 1911; 16 July 1914; 1 July 1915; 1 July 1916; and 1 August 1917.

⁸⁶ Sarawak Gazette, 1 12 1888Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ Sarawak Gazette, 1 07 1915Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Sarawak Gazette, 04 1930Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ See Sarawak Administrative Report 1930, p. 45 and 1931, p. 15Google Scholar. Regarding the origin of its name see Sarawak Gazette, 1 07 1931Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Sarawak Gazette, 2 03 1931Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Lockard, , “The South East Asian Town”, p. 401Google Scholar.

⁹² See Sarawak Administrative Report 1929, p. 43Google Scholar; 1930, p. 44; and 1937, p. 26; Sarawak Gazette, 1 03 1930Google Scholar; and Thomas, Philip Lee, Fajar Sarawak: Akhbar Bahasa Melayu Yang Pertama Di Sarawak (Persatuan Kesusasteraan Sarawak, Petaling Jaya: Fajar Bakti, 1984), pp. 22–23Google Scholar.

⁹³ A year later when the entire student population quit altogether in protest of ‘Government Circular No. 9’ in connection with the Cession issue the College was forced to close. See Sarawak Gazette, 31 10 1966Google Scholar; and Reece, R.H.W., The Name of Brooke: The End of White Rajah Rule in Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 269–72Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Brooke, , Ten Years, p. 326Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ Seymour, J.M., “Education in Sarawak under Brooke Rule, 1841–1941” (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1967), p. 75Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Sarawak Gazette, 1 11 1911Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ See letter dated 25 May 1911. H.H. The Rajah's Letters August 1906 to April 1913.

⁹⁸ His Highness The Rajah Confidential, Vol. II, 1911–13. Letters of 23 September and 26 December 1911 from R.S. Douglas, Acting Resident First Division to H.H. The Rajah. Also Sarawak Gazette, 1 08 1917Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ Sarawak Education Department, “Outline”, p. 13Google Scholar. For the development of these Government Malay schools in the outstations see Sarawak Gazette: 1 06, 2 07, and 1 11 1928Google Scholar; 1 July 1929; 1 December 1939; 1 June 1940; and 2 January 1941 for First Division; 1 September 1930; 1 June and 1 August 1931; and 1 February 1932 for Second Division; 1 August 1929; 1 February, 1 March, 1 May, and 1 September 1930; 1 March, 1 May and 1 October 1931; 1 April and 1 December 1932; and 2 June 1931 for Third Division.

¹⁰⁰ Computations done by Seymour, based on Sarawak Gazette of 1 09 1927Google Scholar and 1 August 1932, and the Sarawak Administrative Report 1936, pp. 21–22. See Seymour, , “Education in Sarawak”, pp. 80–81Google Scholar.

¹⁰¹ Sarawak Gazette, 2 06 1924Google Scholar.

¹⁰² Sarawak Gazelle, 1 10 1931Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ For instance there was a popular tendency “to take holiday[s] on any excuse. Parents take their sons away when there is any extra work such as fruit gathering and such a thing as a tuba-ing … takes away most of the boys as boat crews”. See Sarawak Gazelle, 4 05 1906 and 1 10 1925Google Scholar. Also letter of 8 October 1905 from P.F. Cunynghame, Resident First Division, to the Rajah regarding the matter of unsatisfactory attendance. His Highness the Rajah Confidential. Vol. I 1904–1906.

¹⁰⁴ Clark, C.D. Le Gros, Sarawak: 1935 Blue Report (Kuching: Sarawak Museum, 1935), p. 9Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Hammond, , “Report on Education in Sarawak”, p. 16Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid.

¹⁰⁷ There were no training centres or colleges for teachers in pre-war Sarawak with the exception of the Sarawak Malay Training College which opened in 1940. The Batu Lintang Teachers' Training Centre in Kuching opened in 1948 to produce teachers for rural primary schools. The Sarawak Teachers' Training College in Sibu which was established in 1957 catered for the training of teachers for the Chinese-medium schools, and in 1961 started courses to prepare Chinese-medium teachers to teach English at Junior Secondary level as part of the gradual conversion of Chinese schools to English-medium schools. The Rejang Teachers' Training College in Binatang opened in 1966. See Sarawak: Annual Report 1948, pp. 37–38, and 1961, pp. 91–92Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ See Harrisson, , The Malays, pp. 210–11, 218–19, 356–57 and 628–29Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Education in Sarawak 1960, p. 4.

¹¹⁰ See Noakes, , “Sarawak and Brunei”, p. 635Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ Ibid.