Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-dnltx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T03:46:48.432Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Developing an understanding of the human resource (HR) complexities in Pakistan with a GLOBE cultural lens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 January 2018

Sadia Nadeem  and
Mary F Sully de Luque
Sadia Nadeem*
Affiliation:
FAST School of Management, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan
Mary F Sully de Luque
Affiliation:
Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
*
Corresponding author: sadia.nadeem@nu.edu.pk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article presents primary data from the GLOBE study in Pakistan and compares them with secondary data from the 61 GLOBE societies, in an effort to increase the interest of scholars of cross-cultural management in Pakistan and also provide a practically useful overview for businesses. Results based on data collected from 152 middle managers using the original GLOBE research instruments indicate that Pakistani society exhibits high power distance and in-group collectivism but low assertiveness and gender egalitarianism. The results also indicate a desire to create a more egalitarian society; however, people appear to treasure the lack of assertiveness and high in-group loyalty. In light of these findings, the authors offer implications for management in Pakistan, in accordance with cross-cultural management literature. In-depth research within Pakistan, as well as comparative cross-national studies, are needed to develop a deeper understanding of the impact of the culture on human resource practices in Pakistan.

Keywords

national culturecross-cultural managementinternational human resource managementcross-cultural issues in HRM in emerging marketscultural dimensions
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 26 , Issue 4 , July 2020 , pp. 483 - 501
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amba-Rao, S. C., Petrik, J. A., Gupta, J. N. D., & Von der Embse, T. J. (2000). Comparative performance appraisal practices and management values among foreign and domestic firms in India. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(1), 60–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreassi, J. K., & Lawter, L. (2014). Cultural impact of human resource practices on job satisfaction: A global study across 48 countries. Cross-Cultural Management: An International Journal, 21(1), 55–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashkanasy, N., Gupta, V., Mayfield, M. S., & Trevor-Roberts, E. (2004). Future orientation. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 281–342). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Aycan, Z. (2005). The interplay between cultural and institutional/structural contingences in HRM. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(7), 1083–1119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aycan, Z., & Fikret-Pasa, S. (2003). Career choices, job selection criteria, and leadership preferences in a transnational nation: A case of Turkey. Journal of Career Development, 30(2), 129–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R. A., & Sinha, J. B. P. (1999). Organizational culture and human resource management practices: The model of culture fit. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(4), 501–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodbeck, F. C., Hanges, P. J., Dickson, M. W., Gupta, V., & Dorfman, P. W. (2004). Societal culture and industrial sector influences on organizational culture in culture, leadership and organizations. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 654–668). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Carr, C., & Pudelko, M. (2006). Convergence of management practices in strategy, finance and HRM between the USA, Japan and Germany. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 6(1), 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. C., Zhang, A. Y., & Wang, H. (2014). Enhancing the effects of power sharing on psychological empowerment: The roles of management control and power distance orientation. Management and Organization Review, 10(1), 135–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, S., Zhang, G., Zhang, A., & Xu, J. (2016). Collectivism-oriented human resource management and innovation performance: An examination of team reflexivity and team psychological safety. Journal of Management & Organization, 22(4), 535–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiang, F. (2005). A critical examination of Hofstede’s thesis and its applications to international reward management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(9), 1545–1563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiang, F. F., & Birtch, T. A. (2010). Appraising performance across borders: An empirical examination of the purposes and practices of performance appraisal in a multi‐country context. Journal of Management Studies, 47(7), 1365–1393.Google Scholar
Chiang, F. F., & Birtch, T. A. (2011). The performance implications of financial and non‐financial rewards: An Asian Nordic comparison. Journal of Management Studies, 49(3), 538–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chow, I. H. S., Lo, T. W. C., Sha, Z., & Hong, J. (2006). The impact of developmental experience, empowerment, and organizational support on catering service staff performance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25(3), 478–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooke, F. L. (2012). Human resource management in China: New trends and practices. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cooke, F. L., Veen, A., & Wood, G. (2016). What do we know about cross-country comparative studies in HRM? A critical review of literature in the period of 2000-2014. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1), 196–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowen, T. (2017). Pakistan’s economy is a pleasant surprise, Bloomberg, February 6.Google Scholar
Dastmalchian, A., Lee, S., & Ng, I. (2000). The interplay between organizational and national cultures: A comparison of organizational practices in Canada and South Korea using the competing values framework. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(2), 388–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, D. D. (1998). International performance measurement and management. In J. W. Smither (Ed.),, Performance appraisal (pp. 95–131). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Devinney, T. M., & Hohberger, J. (2017). The past is prologue: Moving on from culture’s consequences. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(1), 48–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donate, M. J., Pena, I., & Sanchez de Pablo, J. D. (2015). HRM practices for human and social capital development: Effects on innovation capabilities. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(9), 1–26.Google Scholar
Duncan, E. (1989). Breaking the curfew: A political journey through Pakistan. London: Penguin Group.Google Scholar
Dunfee, T. W., & Warren, D. E. (2001). Is guanxi ethical? A normative analysis of doing business in China. Journal of Business Ethics, 32(3), 191–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earley, P. C., & Gibson, C. B. (1998). Taking stock in our progress on individualism-collectivism: 100 years of solidarity and community. Journal of Management, 24(3), 265–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Economic Survey (2015). Economic Survey 2014-15. Islamabad: Ministry of Finance.Google Scholar
Emrich, C. G., Denmark, F. L., & Hartog, D. N. D. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 343–394). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Farndale, E., & Sanders, K. (2016). Conceptualizing HRM system strength through a cross-cultural lens. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1), 132–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festing, M., & Barzantny, C. (2008). A comparative approach to performance management in France and Germany: The impact of the European and the country-specific environment. European Journal of International Management, 2(2), 208–227.Google Scholar
Festing, M., & Knappert, L. (2014). Country specific profiles of performance management in China, Germany, and the United States – An empirical test. Thunderbird International Business Review, 56(4), 331–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, C., & Perry, E. L. (2001). Performance appraisal and feedback: A consideration of national culture and a review of contemporary research and future trends. In N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. Kepir-Sinangil, & C. Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology (pp. 127–145). London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fregidou-Malama, M., & Hyder, A. S. (2015). Impact of culture on marketing of health services–Elekta in Brazil. International Business Review, 24(3), 530–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fu, Y., & Kamenou, N. (2011). The impact of Chinese cultural values on human resource policies and practices within transnational corporations in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(16), 3270–3289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Nishi, L. H., & Bechtold, D. J. (2004). Individualism and collectivism, in culture, leadership and organizations. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 438–512). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
GLOBE (2016). Retrieved September 9, 2017, from http://globeproject.com.Google Scholar
Gomez-Mejia, L. R., & Welbourne, T. M. (1991). Compensation strategies in a global context. Human Resource Planning, 14(1), 29–42.Google Scholar
Gregersen, H. B., Hite, J. M., & Black, J. S. (1996). Expatriate performance appraisal in us multinational firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 27(7), 11–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press.Google Scholar
Hall, E. T. (1960). The silent language in overseas business. Harvard Business Review, 38(8), 87–96.Google Scholar
Hanges, P. J., & Dickson, M. W. (2004). The development and validation of the GLOBE culture and leadership scales, in Culture, Leadership and Organizations. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 121–151). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hanges, P. J., & Dickson, M. W. (2006). Agitation over aggregation: Clarifying the development of and the nature of the GLOBE scales. Leadership Quarterly, 17(5), 522–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartog, D. N. D. (2004). Assertiveness. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 395–437). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Herrera, R., Duncan, P. A., Green, M., Ree, M., & Skaggs, S. L. (2011). The relationship between attitudes toward diversity management in the southwest USA and the GLOBE study cultural preferences. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(12), 2629–2646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Horak, S. (2017). The informal dimension of human resource management in Korea: Yongo, recruiting practices and career progression. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(10), 1409–1432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horak, S., & Taube, M. (2015). Same but different? Similarities and fundamental differences of informal social networks in China (guanxi) and Korea (yongo). Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 33(3), 595–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hossain, M., Abdullah, A. M., & Farhana, S. (2015). Performance appraisal and promotion practices on private commercial bank in Bangladesh: A case study from Pubali Bank Ltd. Asian Business Review, 1(1), 49–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Husain, I. (2002). Pakistan: The economy of an elitist state. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Husain, I. (2012). Reforming the government of Pakistan. Lahore: Vanguard Books.Google Scholar
International Institute for Management Development (IMD) (1999). The world competitiveness yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: International Institute for Management Development.Google Scholar
Jackson, T. (2003). International HRM: A cross-cultural approach. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Jackson, S. E., Schuler, R. S., & Werner, S. (2009). Managing human resources (10th ed.), Mason, OH: Cengage.Google Scholar
Jamal, N. (2016, September 2). Herald. Retrieved October 12, 2016, fromhttp://herald.dawn.com/news/1153413.Google Scholar
Javidan, M. (2004). Performance orientation. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 239–281). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., Sully De Luque, M., & House, R. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from project GLOBE. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20(1), 67–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Javidan, M., & Hauser, M. (2004). The linkage between GLOBE findings and other cross-cultural information. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 102–121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Javidan, M., House, R. J., & Dorfman, P. W. (2004). A non-technical summary of GLOBE findings. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 29–48). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Jiang, Y., Colakoglu, S., Lepak, D. P., Blasi, J. R., & Kruse, D. L. (2014). Involvement work systems and operational effectiveness: Exploring the moderating effect of national power distance. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(3), 332–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabasakal, H., & Bodur, M. (2004). Humane orientation in societies, organizations and leader attributes. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 564–601). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kazlauskaite, R., & Buciuniene, I. (2010). HR function developments in Lithuania. Baltic Journal of Management, 5(2), 218–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keough, K. A., Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Who’s smoking, drinking and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(2), 149–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khilji, S. E. (2002). Modes of convergence and divergence: An integrative view of multinational practices in Pakistan. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(2), 232–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khilji, S. E., & Rao, P. (2013). Management and culture in South Asia. In Khilji, S. E., & Rowley, C. (Eds.), Globalization, change and learning in South Asia. Oxford: Chandos Publishing.Google Scholar
Kiani, K. (2016, September 30). With a new Chinese loan, CPEC is now worth $51.5 bn. The Dawn, pp. 10.Google Scholar
Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2017). A retrospective on culture’s consequences: The 35-year journey. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(1), 12–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kluckhohn, F. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. New York: Row Peterson and Co.Google Scholar
Laurent, A. (1983). The cultural diversity of western conceptions of management. International Studies of Management & Organization, 13(1–2), 75–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leat, M., & El-Kot, G. (2007). HRM practices in Egypt: The influence of national context? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(1), 147–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledeneva, A. V. (2008). Blat and guanxi: Informal practices in Russia and China. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50, 118–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledeneva, A. V. (2009). From Russia with “blat”: Can informal networks help modernize Russia? Social Research, 76, 257–288.Google Scholar
Lertxundi, A., & Landeta, J. (2011). The moderating effect of cultural context in the relation between HPWS and performance: An exploratory study in Spanish multinational companies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(18), 3949–3967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Z., Li, J., Zhu, H., Cai, Z., & Wang, L. (2014). Chinese firms’ sustainable development—The role of future orientation, environmental commitment, and employee training. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31(1), 195–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luis, R., & Mejia, G. (1991). Compensation strategies in a global context. Human Resource Planning, 14(1), 29–41.Google Scholar
Luo, J. D. (2011). Guanxi revisited: An exploratory study of familiar ties in a Chinese workplace. Management and Organization Review, 7(2), 329–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manroop, L., Boekhorst, J. A., & Harrison, J. A. (2013). The influence of cross-cultural differences on job interview selection decisions. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(18), 3512–3533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKeown, T., & Petitta, L. (2014). Management studies in context: International, interconnected, yet still unique. Journal of Management & Organization, 20(5), 567–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, P. A. (2013). Gendered contexts and globalization in South Asia. In S. E., Khilji, & C., Rowley (Eds.), Globalization, change and learning in South Asia. Oxford: Chandos Publishing.Google Scholar
Ollo-López, A., Bayo-Moriones, A., & Larraza-Kintana, M. (2011). The impact of country-level factors on the use of new work practices. Journal of World Business, 46(3), 394–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pio, E., & Syed, J. (2014). Sacred activism through seva and khidmat: Contextualising management and organisations in South Asia. Journal of Management & Organization, 20(5), 572–586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pudelko, M. (2005). Cross-national learning from best practice and the convergence-divergence debate in HRM. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(11), 2045–2074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahman, T. (2012). The class structure of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rao, P. (2009). The role of national culture on Mexican staffing practices. Employee Relations, 31(3), 295–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reuters (2016). IMF revises up Pakistan’s 2016/2017 growth forecast to 5 percent. Retrieved November 25, 2016, from http://in.reuters.com/article/pakistan-imf-idINKCN0ZL1JH.Google Scholar
Rokeach, M. (1979). Understanding human values. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Saher, N., & Mayrhofer, W. (2014). The role of Vartan Bhanji in implementing HRM practices in Pakistan. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25, 1881–1903.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartorius, K., Merino, A., & Carmichael, T. (2011). Human resource management and cultural diversity: A case study in Mozambique. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(9), 1963–1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuler, R. S., & Rogovsky, N. (1998). Understanding compensation practice variation across firms: The impact of national culture. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 159–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Sekiguchi, T. (2006). How organizations promote person-environment fit: Using the case of Japanese firms to illustrate institutional and cultural influences. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 23(1), 47–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siddique, Q. (2014). Deeper than the Indian Ocean? An analysis of Pakistan-China relations. SISA Report No. 16, Haslum: Centre for International and Strategic Analysis.Google Scholar
Silva, M. R., Roque, H. C., & Caetano, A. (2015). Culture in Angola: Insights for human resources management. Cross-Cultural Management, 22(2), 166–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, S., Mohamed, A. F., & Darwish, T. (2013). A comparative study of performance appraisals, incentives and rewards practices in domestic and multinational enterprises in the country of Brunei Darussalam. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(19), 3577–3598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, J. B. P. (1997). A cultural perspective on organizational behavior in India. In P. C. Earley, & M. Erez (Eds.), New perspectives on international industrial/organizational psychology (pp. 53–75). San Francisco, CA: The New Lexington Press.Google Scholar
Smith, P. B., Dugan, S., & Trompenaars, F. (1996). National cultures and the values of organizational employees: A dimensional analysis across 43 nations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(2), 231–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sully de Luque, M., & Javidan, M. (2004). Uncertainty avoidance. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 602–653). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Sully de Luque, M., & Sommer, S. M. (2000). The impact of culture on feedback-seeking behavior: An integrated model and propositions. Academy of Management Review, 25(4), 829–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tosi, H., & Greckhamer, T. (2004). Culture and CEO compensation. Organization Science, 15(6), 657–670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. London: Economist Books.Google Scholar
Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture. London: Nicholas Brealey.Google Scholar
Tsang, R. L. (1994). Human resource management problems in Sino-foreign joint ventures. International Journal of Manpower, 15(9), 4–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsui, A. S., Wang, H., & Xin, K. R. (2006). Organizational culture in China: An analysis of culture dimensions and culture types. Management and Organization Review, 2(3), 345–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNDP (1998). Human development report. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Varma, A., Pichler, S., & Srinivas, E. S. (2005). The role of interpersonal affect in performance appraisal: Evidence from two samples – The US and India. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(11), 2029–2044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Wall Street Journal. (2015, April 16). China readies $46 billion for Pakistan trade route. Retrieved November 28, 2016, from https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-to-unveil-billions-of-dollars-in-pakistan-investment-1429214705.Google Scholar
Wang, J., Wang, G. G., Ruona, W. E. A., & Rojewski, J. W. (2005). Confucian values and the implications for international HRD. Human Resource Development International, 8(3), 311–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, S. (2001). International briefing 9: Training and development in United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Training and Development, 5(2), 153–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, B., Eberhardt, M., McKaren, J., & Millington, A. (2005). Human resource barriers to partnership sourcing in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(10), 1886–1900.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Bank (2016a). Pakistan development update, November 2016: making growth matter.Google Scholar
World Bank (2016b). Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+). Retrieved February 2, 2017, form http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS (accessed 2 February 2017).Google Scholar
World Economic Forum (1998). The global competitiveness report. Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Factbook (2017a). The World Factbook 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2017, form https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html.Google Scholar
World Factbook (2017b). The World Factbook 2017: Pakistan. Retrieved February 2, 2017, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html#Econ.Google Scholar
Xu Lu, P. (2003). The joint venture organization: The Chinese model. In T. Jackson (Ed.), International HRM: A cross-cultural approach. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Yahiaoui, D. (2014). Hybridization: Striking a balance between adoption and adaptation of human resource management practices in French multinational corporations and their Tunisian subsidiaries. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(13), 1665–1693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Z., Zhou, X., & Zhang, P. (2015). Discipline versus passion: Collectivism, centralization, and ambidextrous innovation. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 32(3), 745–769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeganeh, H., & Su, Z. (2011). The effects of cultural orientations on preferred compensation policies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(12), 2609–2628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Begley, T. M. (2011). Power distance and its moderating impact on empowerment and team participation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(17), 3601–3617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar