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Republican Relicts: Gender, Memory, and Mourning in Irish Nationalist Culture, ca. 1798–1848
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 July 2020
Abstract
In the past two decades, remembrance has emerged as one of the dominant preoccupations in Irish historical scholarship. There has, however, been little sustained analysis of the relationship between gender and memory in Irish studies, and gender remains under-theorized in memory studies more broadly. Yet one of the striking aspects of nineteenth-century commemorations of the 1798 and 1803 rebellions is the relatively prominent role accorded to women and, in particular, Sarah Curran, Pamela Fitzgerald, and Matilda Tone, the widows of three of the most celebrated United Irish “martyrs.” By analyzing the mnemonic functions these female figures performed in nineteenth-century Irish nationalist discourse, this article offers a case study of the circumstances in which women may be incorporated into, rather than excluded, from national memory cultures. This incorporation, it is argued, had much to do with the fraught political context in which the 1798 rebellion and its leaders were memorialized. As the remembrance of the rebellion in the first half of the nineteenth century assumed a covert character, conventionally gendered distinctions between private grief and public remembrance, intimate histories and heroic reputations, and family genealogy and public biography became blurred so as to foreground women and the female mourner.
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References
1 “The United Irishmen,” United Irishman, 26 February 1848, 42.
2 Tillyard, Stella, Citizen Lord: Edward Fitzgerald, 1763–1798 (London, 1997)Google Scholar. For a comprehensive study of Pamela Fitzgerald's life that concludes there is little evidence to support the claim that she was the daughter of de Genlis and the Duc d'Orléans, see Laura Mather, “The Life and Networks of Pamela Fitzgerald, 1773–1831” (master's thesis, University of Limerick, 2017).
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7 See, for example, the following biographies: Gerald Campbell, Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald (London, 1904); Joseph Turquan and Lucy Ellis, La Belle Pamela Lady Edward Fitzgerald (London, 1924); H. T. MacMullen, The Voice of Sarah Curran: Unedited Letters Together with the Full Story of her Life Told for the First Time (Dublin, 1955); Helena Walsh Concannon, Women of ’Ninety-Eight (Dublin, 1919); Seamus G. O'Kelly, Sweethearts of the Irish Rebels (Dublin, 1968). For theatrical representations of Matilda Tone and Pamela Fitzgerald, see the plays collected in Cheryl Herr, ed., For the Land They Loved: Irish Political Melodramas, 1890–1925 (Syracuse, 1991); For a novelized account of Matilda Tone's life, see Rosamond Jacob, The Rebel's Wife (Tralee, 1957), and of Emmet and Curran's romance, see Gretta Curran Browne, Tread Softly on My Dreams: A Biographical Novel (London, 1990).
8 See the Oxford English Dictionary's definitions for relict: “1. The widow of a man”; “2a. Scottish. A receptacle for holding a relic … Obsolete”; “2b. Originally Scottish = RELIC, n. 1. Now rare”; “3a. A surviving portion or part of something … Now rare,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, s.v. “relict, n,” accessed 3 March 2020.
9 A notable exception here is Nancy Curtin's illuminating analysis of Matilda Tone's “republican widowhood.” Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity.”
10 A landmark publication in establishing memory and commemoration as key fields of enquiry in Irish history is the collection of essays edited by Ian McBride, History and Memory in Modern Ireland (Cambridge, 2001). For a recent review of the state of the field, see Guy Beiner, “Probing the Boundaries of Irish Memory: From Postmemory to Prememory and Back,” Irish Historical Studies 39, no. 154 (2014): 296–307.
11 Kevin Whelan, The Tree of Liberty: Radicalism, Catholicism and the Construction of Irish Identity, 1760–1830 (Cork, 1996), 133.
12 On 1798 and the politics of memory, see Whelan, Tree of Liberty, 133–75; Roy Foster, “Remembering 1798,” in McBride, History and Memory in Modern Ireland, 67–94; Seán Ryder, “Young Ireland and the 1798 Rebellion,” in Rebellion and Remembrance in Modern Ireland, ed. Laurence M. Geary (Dublin, 2001), 135–47; Tom Dunne, Rebellions: Memoir, Memory and 1798 (Dublin, 2004), 101–60. Regional and religious differences in the memory of 1798 are addressed in James S. Donnelly, “Sectarianism in 1798 and in Catholic Nationalist Memory,” in Geary, Rebellion and Remembrance in Modern Ireland, 16–37; Ian McBride, “Memory and Forgetting: Ulster Presbyterians and 1798,” in Bartlett et al., 1798: A Bicentenary Perspective, 478–96; Guy Beiner, “Disremembering 1798? An Archaeology of Social Forgetting and Remembrance in Ulster,” History and Memory 25, no. 1 (2013): 9–50.
13 On the rebellion in popular and oral memory, see Guy Beiner, Remembering the Year of the French: Irish Folk History and Social Memory (Madison, 2007); Maura Cronin, “Memory, Story and Balladry: 1798 and Its Place in Popular Memory in Pre-Famine Ireland,” in Geary, Rebellion and Remembrance in Modern Ireland, 112–34.
14 See Lawrence W. McBride, “Nationalist Constructions of the 1798 Rebellion: The Political Illustrations of J. D. Reigh,” Éire-Ireland 34, no. 2 (1999): 117–34; Eileen Reilly, “Who Fears to Speak of ’98? The Rebellion in Historical Novels, 1880–1914,” Eighteenth-Century Life 22, no. 3 (1998): 118–27; Nuala C. Johnson, “Sculpting Heroic Histories: Celebrating the Centenary of the 1798 Rebellion in Ireland,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19, no. 1 (1994): 78–93.
15 See Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity,” 26–46; David Brundage, “Matilda Tone in America: Exile, Gender, and Memory in the Making of Irish Republican Nationalism,” New Hibernia Review 14, no. 1 (2010): 96–111; C. J. Woods, Bodenstown Revisited: The Grave of Theobald Wolfe Tone, Its Monuments and Its Pilgrimages (Dublin, 2018), 14–20, 200–6.
16 Karen Hagemann and Jane Rendall, “Introduction: Gender, War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives on the Wars of Revolution and Liberation, 1775–1830,” in Gender, War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives, 1775–1830, ed. Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele, and Jane Rendall (Basingstoke, 2010), 1–37, at 28.
17 Aleida Assmann, “Geschlecht und Kulturelles Gedächtnis,” in Errinern und Geschlecht: Freiburger Frauen Studien, ed. Meike Penwitt (Freiburg 2006), vol. 19, 29–44.
18 Assmann, “Geschlecht und Kulturelles Gedächtnis,” 29: “das Errinern ein weibliche Domäne ist … die Männer … sich doch nach dem Vergessen sehnen” (my translation).
19 Guy Beiner, “Forgetting to Remember Orr: Death and Ambiguous Remembrance in Modern Ireland,” in Death and Dying in Ireland, Britain and Europe: Historical Perspectives, ed. James Kelly and Mary Ann Lyons (Dublin, 2013), 171–202. See also Guy Beiner, Forgetful Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster (Oxford, 2018).
20 Joep Leerssen, “Monument and Trauma: Varieties of Remembrance,” in McBride, History and Memory in Modern Ireland, 204–22, at 210.
21 Sylvia Paletschek and Sylvia Schraut, The Gender of Memory: Cultures of Remembrance in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Europe (Frankfurt, 2008), 274.
22 Beiner, Remembering the Year of the French, 185–200.
23 Beiner, 243–75.
24 Theobald Wolfe Tone, Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone: Memoirs, Journals and Political Writings, Compiled and Arranged by William T. W. Tone, 1826, ed. Thomas Bartlett (Dublin, 1998), 46.
25 “For The Press/ Ballymore, October, 1797, Wake of William Orr,” Arthur O'Connor, The Beauties of the Press (London, 1800), 375–76. The poem is also included in William Drennan and John Swanwick Drennan, Glendalloch, and Other Poems, by the Late Dr Drennan, 2nd ed. (Dublin, 1859), 45–47.
26 Beiner, Forgetful Remembrance, 72.
27 Nancy J. Curtin, “‘A Nation of Abortive Men’: Gendered Citizenship and Early Irish Republicanism,” in Reclaiming Gender: Transgressive Identities in Modern Ireland, ed. Marilyn Cohen and Nancy J. Curtin (New York, 1999), 33–52, at 41. For a further discussion of the role of classical republicanism in the gendering of United Irish ideology, see Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity.”
28 Cornelius Tacitus, Agricola and Germany, trans. Anthony R. Birley (Oxford, 1999), 106.
29 Gail Holst-Warhaft, The Cue for Passion: Grief and Its Political Uses (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 5.
30 Darja Šterbenc Erker, “Women's Tears in Ancient Roman Ritual,” in Tears in the Graeco-Roman World, ed. Thorsten Fögen (Berlin, 2009), 135–60.
31 For the classic accounts of republican femininity in the revolutionary era, see Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill, 1980); and on France, Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988). On republican femininity in United Irish discourse, see Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity.” Though the United Irishmen drew on the heavily gendered rhetoric of classical republicanism to justify the exclusion of women from political rights, their gender ideology was also informed by other influences that could lead to more positive conclusions regarding women's public roles. See Catriona Kennedy, “‘A Gallant Nation’: Chivalric Masculinity and Irish Nationalism in the 1790s,” in Public Men: Masculinity and Politics in Modern Britain, ed. Matthew McCormack (Manchester, 2007), 73–92.
32 William Drennan, “The Jewels of Cornelia,” Press (Dublin), 12 October 1797.
33 Plutarch, Plutarch's “Lives,” Translated from the Original Greek with Notes Critical and Historical and a Life of Plutarch, vol. 5, trans. and ed. John Langhorne and William Langhorne (London, 1801), 228.
34 Gearóid Ó Crualaoich, “The Merry Wake,” in Irish Popular Culture, 1650–1850, ed. James S. Donnelly and Kerby A. Miller (Dublin, 1998), 173–200, at 182–83, 196.
35 William Beauford, “Caoinan: or Some Account of the Antient Irish Lamentations,” Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 4 (1792): 41–54, at 41. See also Richard Lovell and Maria Edgeworth's account of the “Caoinan” in the glossary appended to Castle Rackrent. Maria Edgeworth, Castle Rackrent and Ennui, ed. Marilyn Butler (1800; repr. London, 1992), 124–27. It should also be noted that from the eighteenth century the Irish Catholic hierarchy were also engaged in a campaign against traditional wake practices that they saw as evidence of an unruly and impious form of popular religious practice. See Patricia Lysaght, “Old Age, Death and Mourning,” in The Cambridge Social History of Modern Ireland, ed. Eugenio F. Biagini and Mary E. Daly (Cambridge, 2017), 282–96, at 291.
36 Máirín Nic Eoin, “Secrets and Disguises? Caitlín Ní Uallacháin and Other Female Personages in Eighteenth-Century Irish Political Poetry,” Eighteenth-Century Ireland, no. 11 (1996): 7–45.
37 See for example “Father Nicholas Sheehy: A Lament Composed by His Sister,” in The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, vol. 4, Irish Women's Writing and Traditions, ed. Angela Bourke et al. (Cork, 2002), 1371.
38 For an account of the traditional conventions of the lament, see Angela Bourke, “The Irish Traditional Lament and the Grieving Process,” Women's Studies International Forum 11, no. 4 (1988): 287–91, at 288.
39 L. M. Cullen, “The Contemporary and Later Politics of Caoineadh Airt Uí Laoire,” Eighteenth-Century Ireland, no. 8 (1993): 7–38.
40 T. Crofton Croker, introduction to The Keen of the South of Ireland: As Illustrative of Irish Political and Domestic History, Manners, Music and Superstitions (London, 1844), ix–lvii, at xxviii.
41 Beiner, Remembering the Year of the French, 204–5.
42 In Wexford, where those convicted of being ringleaders of the rebellion were executed on the bridge and their bodies thrown into the water, Thomas Cloney recalled the widows’ nocturnal vigils on the riverside as they waited to retrieve their husbands’ bodies. Thomas Cloney, A Personal Narrative of Those Transactions in the County Wexford in Which the Author was Engaged during the Awful Period of 1798 (Dublin, 1832), 144. For further examples of clandestine burials performed by women, see Mick Kinsella, Edward N. Moran, and Conor Murphy, Kilcumney ’98: Its Origins, Aftermath and Legacy (Kilkenny, 1998), 176, 186.
43 John Finegan, ed., Anne Devlin, Patriot and Heroine: Her Own Story of Her Association with Robert Emmet and Her Sufferings in Kilmainham Jail (Dublin, 1992), 31.
44 Daniel Corkery, The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century (1924; repr., Dublin, 1979), 58.
45 For an incisive account of this shift in Irish culture, see Joep Leerssen, Hidden Ireland, Public Sphere (Galway, 2002).
46 On Edward Rushton's authorship and the publication history of “Mary Le More” and its sequels, see Paul Baines, ed., The Collected Writings of Edward Rushton (1756–1814) (Liverpool, 2014), 273–74; “The Maniac—Mary Le More,” in Literary Remains of the United Irishmen, ed. Richard Robert Madden (Dublin, 1887?), 1–3. The version in Madden's collection is consistent with that of “The Maniac,” Monthly Magazine 8, no. 53 (January 1800): 986. For a discussion of “Mary Le More” within the broader context of female imagery in United Irish ballads, see Mary Helen Thuente, “Liberty, Hibernia and Mary Le More: United Irish Images of Women,” in Keogh and Furlong, Women of 1798, 18–25, at 9–24.
47 Thomas Bartlett, “Bearing Witness: Female Evidences in Courts Martial Convened to Suppress the 1798 Rebellion,” in Keogh and Furlong, Women of 1798, 64–86, at 65–67.
48 Richard Musgrave, Memoirs of the Different Rebellions in Ireland, from the Arrival of the English: Also a Particular Detail of that which broke out on the 23rd May, 1798 (Dublin, 1801), 177, 360, 454, 559. See also William Hamilton Maxwell, History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798, with Memoirs of the Union and Emmet's Insurrection in 1803 (London, 1845), 68, 218.
49 Anna Clark, “1798 as the Defeat of Feminism: Women, Patriotism and Politics,” in These Fissured Isles: Ireland, Scotland and British History, 1798–1848, ed. Terry Brotherstone, Anna Clark, and Kevin Whelan (Edinburgh, 2006), 85–104.
50 “Mary Le More” (York, ca. 1823–34) Broadside Ballads Online, Bod9064, http://ballads.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/view/edition/9064.
51 “Mary, a Doggerel Poem,” Irish Magazine and Monthly Asylum for Neglected Biography, March 1808, 140.
52 See Whelan, Tree of Liberty, 164; Elliott, Robert Emmet, 110–12.
53 Walter Cox, “To the Public,” Irish Magazine and Monthly Asylum for Neglected Biography, January 1809, 1.
54 C. J. Woods, s.v., “Cox, Walter,” Dictionary of Irish Biography online.
55 Walter Cox, “The Ullah or Irish Cry,” Irish Magazine and Monthly Asylum for Neglected Biography, February 1815, 57.
56 See for example “Lines to the Memory of Lord E____d F_____d,” Irish Magazine, May 1811, 221; “The Grave of Russell,” Irish Magazine, January 1812, 45–46.
57 Beiner, Forgetful Remembrance, 297–99.
58 On the instability of allegory in an Irish context see Luke Gibbons, Transformations in Irish Culture (Cork, 1996), 18–22.
59 Turquan and Ellis, La Belle Pamela, 370.
60 Elliott, Robert Emmet, 138. For a further account of the “myth and anti-myth” applied to the life of Sarah Curran, see Geoghegan, Robert Emmet, 23–37.
61 Elliott, Robert Emmet, 130.
62 Barra Boydell, “The United Irishmen, Music, Harps and National Identity,” Eighteenth-Century Ireland, no. 13 (1998): 44–51, at 48.
63 On female allegories in European memory cultures, see Sylvia Paletschek and Sylvia Schraut, “Introduction: Gender and Memory Culture in Europe—Female Representations in Historical Perspective,” in Paletschek and Schraut, Gender of Memory, 7–28, at 25.
64 Seamus Deane, “Thomas Moore,” in The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, vol. 1, From Early and Middle Irish Literature through the Intellectual Revival, ed. Seamus Deane, Andrew Carpenter, and Jonathan Williams (New York, 2002), 1056. The continuities between Moore's poetry and Gaelic literature are explored in Tom Dunne, “Haunted by History: Irish Romantic Writing, 1800–50,” in Romanticism in National Context, ed. Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich (Cambridge, 1988), 68–91, at 86–87.
65 Guy Beiner, “Irish Studies and the Dynamics of Disremembering,” in Irish Studies and the Dynamics of Memory: Transitions and Transformations, ed. Marguérite Corporaal, Christopher Cusack, and Ruud van den Beuken (Pieterlen, 2017), 297–321, at 307.
66 Whelan, Tree of Liberty, 167.
67 Madden, The United Irishmen, 2nd ed., 3: 519.
68 Richard Davis, The Young Ireland Movement (Dublin, 1988), 53–55.
69 Seán Ryder, “Speaking of ’98: Young Ireland and the Republican Memory,” Éire-Ireland 34, no. 2 (1999): 51–69, at 57.
70 Ryder, “Speaking of ’98,” 66.
71 Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1840; repr., London, 1869), 1. Carlyle's influence on the Young Ireland movement is discussed in Christopher Harvie, “Contrary Heroes: Industry, Ethnie and 1848,” in Commemorating Ireland: History, Politics and Culture, ed. Eberhard Bort (Dublin, 2004), 167–87, at 176.
72 This point is well illustrated by Graham Dawson's illuminating analysis of the various nineteenth-century biographies of the soldier hero Sir Henry Havelock, Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire and the Imagining of Masculinities (London, 1994), 117–54.
73 Thomas Moore, The Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London, 1831), 1:254.
74 The Life, Trial and Conversations of Robert Emmet, Esq. Leader of the Irish Insurrection of 1803 (Manchester, 1836), 31. On the popularity of this account and its role in consolidating the Emmet “legend,” see Elliott, Robert Emmet, 129.
75 Madden, The United Irishmen, 2nd ed, 3: 514.
76 Harry Sirr, Sarah Curran's and Robert Emmet's Letters (Dublin, 1910), 10.
77 Madden, The United Irishmen, 2nd ed., 3: 515.
78 Maxwell, History of the Irish Rebellion, 14.
79 Moore, Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, 1:36–37, 54–55; Maxwell, History of the Irish Rebellion, 25.
80 Stella Tillyard, Citizen Lord, 143–44.
81 Musgrave, Memoirs of the Different Rebellions in Ireland, 300.
82 “Memoirs of the Late Lord Edward Fitzgerald,” Irish Magazine, July 1808, 320.
83 Charles Hamilton Teeling, The History of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and Sequel to the History of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 (1828; repr., Shannon, 1972), 82.
84 Teeling, History of the Irish Rebellion, 83.
85 Charles Gavan Duffy, Young Ireland: A Fragment of Irish History 1840–1850 (London, 1880), 181. The gender politics of the Young Ireland movement are discussed in more detail in Marjorie Howes, “Tears and Blood: Lady Wilde and the Emergence of Irish Cultural Nationalism,” in Ideology and Ireland in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Tadhg Foley and Seán Ryder (Dublin, 1998), 151–72; and Seán Ryder, “Gender and the Discourse of Young Ireland Cultural Nationalism,” in Gender and Colonialism, ed. Timothy P. Foley et al. (Galway, 1995), 210–24.
86 Thomas Davis, “The History of Ireland,” in Literary and Historical Essays, ed. C. P. Meehan (Dublin, 1883), 28–38, at 28.
87 “Illustrations of Irish History—No. 2,” Nation, 1 April 1843, 378.
88 See, for example, “Lament of the Irish Maiden,” Nation, 15 February 1845; “Lament of the Emigrant Connaught Woman for her Dead Son,” Nation, 15 March 1845; “Lament for the Last of the Brave,” Nation, 25 February 1843; “The Lament of Mac Murchard,” Nation, 7 January 1843. On tears in the writing of Young Ireland, see Howes, “Tears and Blood.”
89 Thomas Davis, “The Victor's Burial,” Nation, 14 September. The version of the poem published in Davis's collected poems in 1846 names this chant as the tuireamh rather than the thirroe. Thomas Davis, “The Victor's Burial,” The Poems of Thomas Davis: Now First Collected, with Notes Historical and Illustrations (Dublin, 1846), 84.
90 Jan Cannavan, “Romantic Revolutionary Irishwomen: Women, Young Ireland and 1848,” in Gender Perspectives in Nineteenth-Century Ireland: Public and Private Spheres, ed. Margaret Kelleher and James H. Murphy (Dublin, 1997), 212–20.
91 See, for instance, Mary Eva Kelly, “The Patriot Mother,” in The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, vol. 5, Irish Women's Writing and Traditions, ed. Angela Bourke et al. (Cork, 2002), 901–2.
92 In “The Nation's Valentine to the Ladies of Ireland,” Sarah Curran was invoked as a model to be emulated by the “daughters of Erin,” who were urged, like Curran, “to smile but on him who braves danger and toil.” “The Nation's Valentine to the Ladies of Ireland,” Nation, 11 February 1843.
93 “Illustrious Irishwomen. No 1. Matilda Tone,” Nation, 22 April 1848.
94 The intended audience for Wolfe Tone's journal and memoirs were, according to his own account, Matilda Tone and his closest friend and fellow United Irishman, Thomas Russell. They attest to Tone's admiration and affection for his wife but also include many candid details about his liaisons with other women, some of which were edited out by Matilda and her son, William, for the edition first published in 1826. See Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity,” 44.
95 Ryder, “Gender and the Discourse of Young Ireland Nationalism.”
96 “Illustrious Irishwomen. No 1. Matilda Tone,” Nation, 22 April 1848.
97 Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity.”
98 Beiner, “Probing the Boundaries of Irish Memory,” 300.
99 John Robertson, The Scottish Enlightenment and the Militia Issue (Edinburgh, 1984), 80.
100 See, for example, Charles Fanning, “Robert Emmet and Nineteenth-Century Irish-America,” New Hibernia Review 8, no. 4 (2004): 53–83.
101 “Address Presented to the Widow of T. W. Tone and Sword to her Son by the Hibernian Provident Society in New York, in 1807,” Richard Robert Madden papers, Trinity College Dublin (hereafter TCD), Madden MS, 873/40.
102 Curtin, “Matilda Tone and Virtuous Republican Femininity,” 42.
103 C.E., “Some Further Particulars of the Widow and Son of Theobald Wolfe Tone,” New Monthly Magazine and Literary Journal, no. 9 (1825), 267–72, at 271.
104 Matilda Tone, “Mrs Tone's Interview with Napoleon,” in Tone, Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone, appendix B, 924.
105 Elliott, Wolfe Tone, 413.
106 Woods, Bodenstown Revisited, 16.
107 Dedication to Matilda Tone by Thomas Davis, Richard Robert Madden papers, TCD, Madden MS 873/35.
108 Brundage, “Matilda Tone in America,” 108.
109 Madden, The United Irishmen 2nd ed., 3: 183.
110 Madden, The United Irishmen, their lives and times 2nd ed., 4 vols (Dublin, 1857–60), 2: 464.
111 Richard Robert Madden, The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times, 2nd ser., 2 vols. (London, 1843), 1:209.
112 John R. Gillis, A World of Their Own Making. Myth, Ritual and the Quest for Family Values (New York, 1996), 214–15.
113 Jane Rendall, ‘“Friends of Liberty and Virtue’: Women Radicals and Transatlantic Correspondence, 1789–1848,” in Gender and Politics in the Age of Letter Writing, 1750–2000, ed. Caroline Bland and Máire Cross (Aldershot, 2004), 77–92, at 84.
114 Letters and biographical notices by Mary Ann McCracken can be found in the collected papers of Richard Robert Madden, TCD, Madden MS 873/70-163.
115 “Biographical Memoir of Dr W. J. Macneven drawn up for R. R. Madden by the daughter of Dr W. J. Macneven,” Richard Robert Madden papers, TCD, Madden MS 873/526.
116 Mary Hancock to R. R. Madden, 1 October 1843, Richard Robert Madden papers, TCD, Madden MS 873/423.
117 Susan M. Stabile, Memory's Daughters: The Material Culture of Remembrance in Eighteenth-Century America (Ithaca, 2004), 4.
118 J. J. St. Mark, “Matilda and William Tone in New York and Washington after 1798,” Éire/Ireland, no. 22 (1987): 4–10, at 9.
119 As J. J. St. Mark notes, Madden's decision not to visit Matilda Tone during his visit to Washington in 1834–35 is puzzling, as she resided nearby in Georgetown and would have been the source of valuable information. St. Mark, “Matilda and William Tone,” 9.
120 Matilda Tone, “To the Editor of the Truth Teller, Georgetown, 19 October 1842,” reprinted in the Nation, 17 December 1842.
121 Richard Robert Madden, The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times, 3rd ser., 2 vols. (Dublin, 1846), 2:157.
122 Judith Hill, “Ideology and Cultural Production: Nationalism and the Public Monument in Mid Nineteenth-Century Ireland,” in Foley and Ryder, Ideology and Ireland, 55–68, at 55–58; Johnson, “Sculpting Heroic Histories.”
123 Gary Owens, “Constructing the Martyrs: The Manchester Executions and the Nationalist Imagination,” in Images, Icons and the Irish Nationalist Imagination, ed. Lawrence W. McBride (Dublin, 1999), 18–36, at 28–31.
124 See C. L. Innes, Woman and Nation in Irish Literature and Society, 1880–1935 (Athens, GA, 1993), 73.
125 Orlaith Mannion, “‘Silent but Eloquent Reminders’: The Nationalist Monuments in Cork and Skibbereen,” in Geary, Rebellion and Remembrance, 185–95, at 186–87.
126 “Irishwomen's Centenary Union,” Shan Van Vocht, October 1897, 192. Crossman, Virginia, “The Shan Van Vocht: Women, Republicanism, and the Commemoration of the 1798 Rebellion,” Eighteenth-Century Life 22, no. 3 (1998): 128–39Google Scholar, at 133–34.
127 “Irishwomen's Centenary Union,” Shan Van Vocht, October 1897, 192.
128 “Excursion to Ballynahinch and the Grave of Betsy Gray,” Shan Van Vocht, October 1897, 192.
129 “Wolfe Tone Memorial Bazaar—Ladies Auxiliary Association,” Freeman's Journal, 30 August 1900.
130 Woods, Bodenstown Revisited, 20.
131 For an overview of commemorative activities during 1898, see Peter Collins, “‘Who Fears to Speak of ’98?’ Historic Commemoration of the 1798 Rising,” in Bort, Commemorating Ireland, 15–33, at 20–25.
132 Constance Markievicz, “The Future of Irishwomen,” Irish Citizen, 23 October 1915.
133 Constance Markievicz, “The Women of ’98,” Irish Citizen, 6 November 1915, 13 November 1915, 20 November 1915, 27 November 1915, 4 December 1915.
134 Concannon, Women of ’Ninety-Eight, ix.
135 See McNeill, Mary, The Life and Times of Mary Ann McCracken, 1770–1866: A Belfast Panorama (Dublin, 1960), 128Google Scholar.