Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-jbqgn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-23T14:55:22.891Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG UNMARRIED ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG ADULTS IN ZIMBABWE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2009

WILLIAM SAMBISA ,
SIAN L. CURTIS  and
C. SHANNON STOKES
WILLIAM SAMBISA
Affiliation:
MEASURE Evaluation Project and Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
SIAN L. CURTIS
Affiliation:
MEASURE Evaluation Project and Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
C. SHANNON STOKES
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University, PA, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Understanding the social and cultural contextual determinants of sexual behaviour of adolescents and young adults is an essential step towards curtailing the spread of HIV. This study examined the effects of one cultural factor, ethnicity, on sexual abstinence, faithfulness, condom use at last sex, and risky sex among young people in Zimbabwe. Data from the cross-sectional, population-based 2005–06 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey were used. Net of the effect of sociodemographic and social–cognitive factors, and using multinomial logistic regression, ethnicity was found to have a strong and consistent effect on sexual behaviour among youth. In addition, the study found that there were ethnic-specific and within-gender differences in sexual behaviour, for both men and women. Shona youth were more likely to be abstinent than Ndebele youth. Compared with Shona youth, Ndebele youth were more likely to have engaged in risky sex. However, Ndebele men were more likely have used condoms at last sex, compared with Shona men. For both men and women, sexual behaviour was more socially controlled. School attendance and religion exerted protective effects on sexual abstinence. For men only, those living in rural areas were less likely to be faithful and more likely to have engaged in risky sexual behaviour than those living in urban areas. The study attests to the fact that ethnic norms and ideologies of sexuality need to be identified and more thoroughly understood. In addition, the study provides evidence that in order to promote safe and healthy sexuality among young people in Zimbabwe, cultural, social and gender-specific approaches to the development of HIV prevention strategies should be seriously considered. Current success in the Abstinence, Being faithful and Condom use (ABC) approach could be strengthened by recognizing and responding to cultural forces that reproduce and perpetuate risky sexual behaviours.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Biosocial Science , Volume 42 , Issue 1 , January 2010 , pp. 1 - 25
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Addai, I. (1999a) Ethnicity and sexual behaviour in Ghana. Social Biology 46(1–2), 17–32.Google ScholarPubMed
Addai, I. (1999b) Ethnicity and contraceptive use in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of Ghana. Journal of Biosocial Science 31, 105–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Addai, I. (2000) Religious affiliation and sexual initiation among Ghanaian women. Review of Religious Research 41(3), 328–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Addai, I. & Trovato, F. (1999) Structural assimilation and ethnic fertility in Ghana. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 30(3), 409–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akwara, P. A., Madise, N. J. & Hinde, A. (2003) Perception of risk of HIV/AIDS and sexual behaviour in Kenya. Journal of Biosocial Science 35(3), 385–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alford, S., Cheetham, N. & Hauser, D. (2005) Science and Success in Developing Countries: Holistic Programs that Work to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, HIV & Sexually Transmitted Infections. Advocates for Youth, Washington, DC. URL: http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/sciencesuccess_developing.pdf (accessed 6th January 2007).Google Scholar
Arnaldo, C. (2004) Ethnicity and marriage patterns in Mozambique. African Population Studies 19(1), 143–164.Google Scholar
Ben-Zur, H., Breznitz, S., Wardi, N. & Berzon, Y. (2000) Denial of HIV/AIDS and preventive behavior among Israeli adolescents. Journal of Adolescence 23, 157–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bingham, J. S., Barton, S. E. & Stary, A. (2001) Sexually transmitted infections and human immunodeficiency virus infections in Europe: the way ahead? Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 15, 402–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanc, A. & Rutenberg, N. (1990) Assessment of quality of data on age at first sexual intercourse, age at first marriage, and age at first birth in Demographic and Health Surveys. In Macro International Inc. (ed.) An Assessment of DHS-1 Data Quality. Demographic and Health Surveys Methodological Reports, No. 1. Institute for Resource Development/Macro System Inc., Columbia, MD, pp. 39–79.Google Scholar
Bourdillon, M. F. C. (1976) The Shona People. Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Bourdillon, M. F. C. (1997) Where are the Ancestors: Changing Culture in Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe Publications, Harare, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Brandon-Gage, A. J. & Meekers, D. (1993). Sex, contraception and childbearing before marriage in sub-Saharan Africa. International Family Planning Perspectives 19(14), 14–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brokensha, D. (1989) Overview: social factors in the transmission and control of AIDS. In N., Miller & R., Rockwell (eds) AIDS in Africa: The Social and Policy Impact. Studies in African Health and Medicine, Vol. 10. Edwin Mellen Press, New York, pp. 168–173.Google Scholar
Caldwell, J. C. & Caldwell, P. (1987) The cultural context of high fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Population and Development Review 13(3), 409–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldwell, J. C., Caldwell, P. & Quiggin, P. (1989) The social contexts of AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Population and Development Review 15(2), 185–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, B. & Mbizvo, M. T. (1994) Sexual behaviour and HIV knowledge among adolescent boys in Zimbabwe. Central African Journal of Medicine 40(9), 245–250.Google ScholarPubMed
Caraël, M. (1997) Urban and rural differentials in HIV/STDs and sexual behaviour. In Herdt, G. (ed.) Sexual Cultures and Migration in the Era of AIDS: An Anthropological and Demographic Perspective. Clarendon, Oxford, UK, pp. 107–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for Reproductive Law and Policy (CRLP) & Child and Law Foundation (CLF) (2006) State Denial: Adolescent Reproductive Rights in Zimbabwe. Center for Reproductive Law and Policy (CRLP) & Child and Law Foundation, USA.Google Scholar
Central Statistical Office (CSO) [Zimbabwe] & Macro International Inc. (2007) Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey, 2005–06. CSO and Macro International Inc., Calverton, MD.Google Scholar
Chigwedere, A. (2000) The Abandoned Adolescents. Mutapa Publishing House, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Curtis, S. L. & Sutherland, E. G. (2004) Measuring sexual behaviour in the era of HIV/AIDS: the experience of Demographic and Health Surveys and similar enquiries. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 80 (Supplement II), ii22–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Ekundayo, O. J., Dobson-Stallworth, J., Roofe, M., Aban, I. C., Bachman, L. H., Kempf, M. et al. (2007) Initiation of heterosexual activity among adolescents in rural Jamaica: the influence of family factors. Journal of Education and Human Development 1(2).Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. (1979) Growing up in the Shona Society. Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Gilbert, L. & Walker, L. (2002) Treading the path of least resistance: HIV/AIDS and social inequalities – South African case study. Social Science and Medicine 54, 1093–1110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldscheider, C. (1971) Population, Modernization, and Social Structure. Little, Brown and Company, Boston.Google Scholar
Government of Zimbabwe (2008) United Nations General Assembly Report on HIV and AIDS: Follow- up to the Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. Zimbabwe Country Report. Reporting Period: January 2006–December 2007. Government of Zimbabwe. Retrieved from http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/zimbabwe_2008_country_progress_report_en.pdf (accessed 8th February 2008).Google Scholar
Gregson, S., Garnet, G. P., Nyamukapa, C. A., Hallett, T. B., Lewis, J. J. C., Mason, P. R. et al. (2006) HIV decline associated with behaviour change in eastern Zimbabwe. Science 311, 664–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregson, S., Nyamukapa, C. A., Mason, G. P. R., Zhuwau, T., Caraël, M., Chandiwana, S. K. & Anderson, R. M. (2002) Sexual mixing patterns and sex-differentials in teenage exposure to HIV infection in rural Zimbabwe. Lancet 359(9321), 1896–1903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregson, S., Zhuwau, T., Anderson, R. M. & Chandiwana, S. K. (1998) Is there evidence for behavioural change in response to AIDS in rural Zimbabwe? Social Science and Medicine 46, 321–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregson, S., Zhuwau, T., Anderson, R. M. & Chandiwana, S. K. (1999) Apostles and Zionists: the influence of religion on demographic change in rural Zimbabwe. Population Studies 53, 179–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grisaru, N., Lezer, S. & Belmaker, R. H. (1997) Ritual female genital surgery among Ethiopian Jews. Archives of Sexual Behavior 26(2), 211–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grosskurth, H., Mosha, F., Todd, J., Mwijarubi, E., Klokke, A., Senkoro, K. et al. (1995) Impact of improved treatment of sexually transmitted diseases on HIV infection in rural Tanzania: randomized controlled trial. Lancet 346, 530–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gwede, C. K., McDermott, R. J., Westhoff, W. W., Mushore, M., Mushore, T., Chitsika, E. et al. (2001) Health risk behaviour of rural secondary school students in Zimbabwe. Health Education and Behavior 28(5), 608–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hallman, K. (2004) Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Unsafe Sexual Behaviours among Young Women and Men in South Africa. Working Paper No. 190. Policy Research Division, Population Council.Google Scholar
Hartell, C. G. (2005) HIV/AIDS in South Africa: a review of sexual behaviour among adolescents. Adolescence 40, 171–181.Google ScholarPubMed
Hirschman, C. (1985) Premarital socioeconomic roles and timing of family formation: a comparative study of five Asian societies. Demography 22(1), 35–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hladik, W., Shabbir, I., Jelaludin, A., Woldu, A., Tsehaynesh, M. & Tadesse, W. (2006) HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia: where is the epidemic heading? Sexually Transmitted Diseases 82 (Supplement I), i32–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, D. B. (1987) Cultural practices contributing to the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in Africa. Review of Infectious Diseases 9(6), 1109–1119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulton, L. A., Cullen, R. & Khalokho, S. W. (2000) Perceptions of risks of sexual activity and their consequences among Ugandan adolescents. Studies in Family Planning 31, 35–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jewkes, R., Vundule, C., Maforah, F. & Jordaan, E. (2001) Relationship dynamics and teenage pregnancy in South Africa. Social Science and Medicine 52(5), 733–744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, Y. M., Kols, A., Nyakauru, R., Marangwanda, C. & Chibatamoto, P. (2001) Promoting sexual responsibility among young people in Zimbabwe. International Family Planning Perspectives 27(1), 11–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, R. (1999) Sexual Behaviour Change for HIV: Where have the Theories Taken Us? Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Kirungi, W. L., Musinguzi, J., Madraa, E., Mulumba, N., Callejja, T., Ghys, P. & Bessinger, R. (2006) Trends in antenatal HIV prevalence in urban Uganda associated with uptake of preventive sexual behaviour. Sexual Transmitted Infections 82, i36–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacPhail, C. & Campbell, C. (2001) ‘I think condoms are good but, aai, I hate those things’: condom use among adolescents and young people in a South African township. Social Science and Medicine 52(11), 1613–1628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macro International Inc. (2008) HIV Prevalence Estimates from the Demographic and Health Surveys. Macro International Inc., Calverton, MD, USA.Google Scholar
Magnani, R. J., Karim, A. M., Weiss, L. A., Bond, K. C., Lemba, M. & Morgan, G. T. (2002) Reproductive health risk and protective factors among youth in Lusaka, Zambia. International Family Planning Perspectives 30, 76–86.Google ScholarPubMed
Mahomva, A., Greby, S., Dube, S., Mugurungi, O., Hargrove, J., Rosen, D. et al. (2006) HIV prevalence and trends from data in Zimbabwe, 1997–2004. Sexually Transmitted Infections 82 (Supplement 1), i42–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maswanya, E. S., Moji, K., Horiguchi, I., Nagata, K., Aoyagi, K., Honda, S. & Takemoto, T. (1999) Knowledge, risk perception of AIDS and reported sexual behavior among students in secondary schools and colleges in Tanzania. Health Education Resources 14(2), 185–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mbizvo, M. T., Siziya, S., Olayinka, J. & Adamchak, S. E. (1997) Knowledge of STIs and AIDS, Risk Awareness, and Condom Use. Macro International Inc., Calverton, MD.Google Scholar
Meekers, D. & Wekwete, N. (1997) The Socioeconomic and Demographic Situation of Adolescents and Young Adults in Zimbabwe. Macro International Inc., Calverton, MD.Google Scholar
Meursing, K., Vos, T., Coutinho, O., Moyo, M., Mpofu, S., Oneko, O., Mundy, V. et al. (1995) Child abuse in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe. Social Science and Medicine 41(12), 693–1704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer-Weitz, A., Reddy, P., Weijts, W., van den Borne, B. & Kok, G. (1998) The socio-cultural contexts of sexually transmitted diseases in South Africa: implications for health education programmes. AIDS Care 10 (Supplement 1), S39–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ministry of Health and Child Welfare (MOHCW), Zimbabwe National Family Planning Council (ZNFPC) National AIDS Council of Zimbabwe (NAC) & US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004) The Zimbabwe Young Adults Survey (YAS) 2001–2002. Ministry of Health and Child Welfare and US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Harare, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Mmari, K. & Blum, R. (2005) Table of Risk and Protective Factors Affecting Adolescent Sexual Behaviour, Pregnancy, Childbearing, HIV/AIDS, and Other Sexually Transmitted Infections: Putting What Works to Work. A Project of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Montana, D. E., Kasprzyk, D., Woelk, G. B., St Lawrence, J. S. & NIMH Collaborative HIV/STD Prevention Trial (2004) Ethnic differences in HIV risk behaviours in Zimbabwe. Abstract presented at the XV International AIDS Conference,Bangkok,11–16th July. URL: http://www.iasociety.org/ejias-search/show.asp?abstract_id=2172113&iConferenceID=2004 (accessed 19th August 2006).Google Scholar
Murdock, G. P. (1964) Cultural correlates of the regulation of premarital sex behaviour. In Manners, R. A. (ed.) Process and Pattern in Culture: Essays in Honor of Julian H. Steward. Aldine, Chicago, pp. 339–410.Google Scholar
Murdock, G. P. (1967) Ethnographic atlas: a summary. Ethnology 6(2), 109–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National AIDS Council of Zimbabwe (NAC) (2006) Zimbabwe: National HIV and AIDS Strategic Plan (ZNASP) 2006–2010. National AIDS Council of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare and UNAIDS, Harare, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Ndyanabangi, B., Kipp, W. & Diesfeld, H. (2004) Reproductive health behaviour among in-school and out-of-school youth in Kabarole district, Uganda. African Journal of Reproductive Health 8(3), 55–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nguyen, M., Ugarte, C., Fuller, I., Haas, I. & Portenoy, R. K. (2005) Access to care for chronic pain: racial and ethnic differences. Journal of Pain 6(5), 301–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nnko, S., Boerma, J. T., Urassa, M., Mwaluko, G. & Zaba, B. (2004) Secretive females or swaggering males? An assessment of the quality of sexual partnerships reporting in rural Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine 59(2), 299–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyathi, P. (2001) Traditional Ceremonies of AmaNdebele. Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
Obbo, C. (1995) Gender, age and class: discourses on HIV transmission and control in Uganda. In Brummelhius, H. & Herdt, G. (eds) Culture and Sexual Risk: Anthropological Perspectives on AIDS. Gordon and Breach, New York, pp. 79–95.Google Scholar
Ocholla-Ayayo, A. B. C., Lema, V., Obudho, R. O., Maganzi, Z., Suda, D., Njua, M., Khasakhala, A. A. & Pitchar, M. (1993) Sexual Practices and the Risk of the Spread of STDs and AIDS in Kenya. Task Force on Sex Practices and Risk of STDs and AIDS in Kenya, World Health Organization and Research Institute, University of Nairobi, Kenya.Google Scholar
Odimegwu, C. (2005) Influence of religion on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviour among Nigerian university students: affiliation or commitment? African Journal of Reproductive Health 9(2), 125–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orubuloye, I. O., Caldwell, J. C. & Caldwell, P. (1991) Sexual networking in Ekiti district of Nigeria. Studies in Family Planning 22(2), 61–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, I. U., Sneed, C. D., Morisky, D. E.Alvear, S. & Hearst, N. (2002) Correlates of HIV risk among Ecuadorian Adolescents. AIDS Education and Prevention 14(1), 73–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, W. (2004) Rethinking Conceptual Approaches to Behaviour Change: The Importance of Context. Centre for AIDS Development, Research and Evaluation, Johannesburg, South Africa. URL: http://www.cadre.org.za/pdf/CANBehaviour.pdf (accessed 21st August 2006).Google Scholar
Ponderstone, K. E., Strathdee, S. A. & Celentano, D. D. (2004) The social epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Epidemiologic Reviews 26, 22–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez-Valles, J., Zimmerman, M. A. & Juarez, L. (2002) Gender differences of neighborhood and social control processes: a study of the timing of first sexual intercourse among low-achieving, urban, African American youth. Youth and Society 33, 418–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rani, M., Figueroa, M. E. & Ainsle, R. (2003) The psychosocial context of youth adult sexual behavior in Nicaragua: looking through the gender lens. International Family Planning Perspectives 29(4), 174–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, J. N. K. & Scott, A. J. (1984) On chi-square test for multiway contingency tables with cell proportions estimated from survey data. Annals of Statistics 12(1), 46–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Retherford, R. D. & Choe, M. K. (1993) Statistical Models for Causal Analysis. John Wiley and Sons, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, P. (1991) Dance, Civet Cat: Child Labour in the Zambezi Valley. ZED, London.Google Scholar
Runganga, A. O., Pitts, M. & McMaster, J. (1992) The use of herbal and other agents to enhance sexual experience. Social Science and Medicine 35(88), 1037–1042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutstein, S. O. & Johnson, K. (2004) The DHS Wealth Index. DHS Comparative Report No. 6. ORC Macro, Calverton, MD.Google Scholar
Rwenge, M. (2000) Sexual risk behaviours among young people in Bamenda, Cameron. International Family Planning Perspectives 26(3), 118–123 & 130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salamonson, Y. & Andrew, S. (2006) Academic performance in nursing students: influence of part-time employment, age and ethnicity. Journal of Advanced Nursing 55(3), 342–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schatz, P. & Dzvimbo, K. P. (2001) The adolescent sexual world and AIDS prevention: a democratic approach to programme design in Zimbabwe. Health Promotion International 16, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibanda, A. (2000) A nation in pain: why the HIV/AIDS epidemic is out of control in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Health Services 30, 717–738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simbayi, L. C., Kalichman, S. C., Jooste, S., Cherry, C., Mfecane, S. & Cain, D. (2005) Risk factors or HIV/AIDS among youth in Cape Town, South Africa. AIDS and Behavior 9(1), 53–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, S., Darroch, J. E. & Bankole, A. (2003) A, B and C in Uganda: The Roles of Abstinence, Monogamy and Condom Use in HIV Decline. Occasional Report No. 9. Alan Guttmacher Institute, New York.Google Scholar
Singh, S., Wulf, D., Samara, R. & Cuca, Y. P. (2000) Gender differences in the timing of first intercourse: data from 14 countries. International Family Planning Perspectives 26(1), 21–28 & 43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slap, G. B., Lot, L., Huang, B., Daniyam, C. A., Zink, T. K. & Succop, P. A. (2003) Sexual behaviour among adolescents in Nigeria: cross sectional survey of secondary school students. British Medical Journal 326(15), 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terry, P. E., Mhloyi, M., Masvaure, T. B. & Adlis, S. A. (2005) Gender equity and HIV/AIDS prevention: comparing gender differences in sexual practice and beliefs among Zimbabwe university students. International Quarterly of Community Health Education 24, 29–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thapa, S. (1989) The ethnic factor in the timing of family formation in Nepal. Asia-Pacific Population Journal 4(1), 3–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UNAIDS (2005a) Evidence for HIV Decline in Zimbabwe: A Comprehensive Review of the Epidemiological Data. UNAIDS and WHO, Zimbabwe.Google Scholar
UNAIDS (2005b) AIDS Epidemic Update: December. UNAIDS and WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Upchurch, D. M., Levy-Storms, L., Sucoff, C. A. & Aneshensel, C. S. (1998) Gender and ethnic differences in the timing of fist sexual intercourse. Family Planning Perspectives 30, 121–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voeten, H. A. C. M., Egesah, O. B. & Habbena, J. D. F. (2004). Sexual behaviour is more risky in rural than in urban areas among young women in Nyanza province, Kenya. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 31(8), 481–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vos, T. (1994) Attitudes to sex and sexual behaviour in rural Matabeleland, Zimbabwe. AIDS Care 6(2), 193–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, D., Greenspan, R. & Wilson, C. (1989) Knowledge about AIDS and self-reported behaviour among Zimbabwe secondary school pupils. Social Science and Medicine 9, 957–961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (2006). Promoting and Safeguarding the Sexual and Reproductive Health Adolescents. Policy Brief No. 4. Implementing the Global Reproductive Health Strategy. Reproductive Health and Research, Child and Adolescent Health and Development. URL: http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/policybrief4.pdf (accessed 3rd December 2006).Google Scholar
Zambuko, O. & Mturi, A. J. (2005) Sexual risk behaviour among the youth in the era of AIDS in South Africa. Journal of Biosocial Science 37, 569–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed