¹ Colenso, J. W. (ed.), Cetshwayo's Dutchman: Being the Private Journal of a White Trader in Zululand during the British Invasion by Cornelius Vijn (London, 1880Google Scholar; repr. New York, 1969) ix–xi, introduction by Colenso, who culled these expressions from Frere's despatches in the British Parliamentary Papers.

² Frere's official statements are most conveniently accessible in the British Parliamentary Papers, especially C.2220, C.2222, C.2252, C.2260, C.2269, C.2316, C.2318 and C.2454. His private letters are extensively quoted in Martineau, J., The Life and Correspondence of Sir Bartle Frere (London, 1895), iiGoogle Scholar, and in Worsfold, W. B., Sir Bartle Frere: A Footnote to the History of the British Empire (London, 1923).Google Scholar Colenso edited Cetshwayo's Dutchman (see n. 1) to counteract Frere's statements in the Parliamentary Papers. He also sent privately printed extracts from the Parliamentary Papers and other documents, with commentary, to politicians, journalists and the Aborigines Protection Society; the bound collection I have consulted in the Killie Campbell Africana Library, Durban, is titled Bishop Colenso's Commentary on Frere's Policy (Bishopstowe, n.d.). The first section contains correspondence between Frere and Colenso which was edited by Colenso and published as Correspondence between His Excellency the High Commissioner and the Bishop of Natal Referring to the Present Invasion of Zululand (Durban and Pietermaritzburg, 1879).Google Scholar His daughter co-authored Colenso, F. E. and Durnford, E., History of the Zulu War and its Origin (London, 1880).Google Scholar A superb biography of Bishop Colenso which gives a detailed and sympathetic account of his various campaigns for truth and justice, but which never loses sight of the fact that he was a man of his own time, is Guy, J., The Heretic: A Study of the Life of John William Colenso, 1814–1883 (Johannesburg and Pietermaritzburg, 1983).Google Scholar See also Martin, S. J. R., ‘British images of the Zulu, c. 1820–1879’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1982)Google Scholar, part III, where the influence of Colenso is particularly evident: in his introduction he criticizes Philip Curtin's Image of Africa for contrasting images with a supposed ‘reality’, but it is clear that for Martin too there is a Zulu reality and that it is the Colenso version.

³ Binns, C. T., The Last Zulu King: The Life and Death of Cetshwayo (London, 1963)Google Scholar; Guy, J., ‘Cetshwayo kaMpande c. 1832–84’, in Saunders, C. (ed.), Black Leaders in Southern African History (London, 1979)Google Scholar; Laband, J. and Wright, J., King Cetshwayo kaMpande (Pietermaritzburg and Ulundi, 1983)Google Scholar; Ballard, C., ‘The historical image of King Cetshwayo of Zululand: a centennial comment’, Natalia, XIII (1983).Google Scholar

⁴ Walter, E. V., Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities (New York, 1969).Google Scholar

⁵ Among the many papers, published and unpublished, one might mention in particular, Worger, W., ‘Clothing dry bones: the myth of Shaka’, J. Afr. Studies, VI (1979)Google Scholar; Wright, J., ‘Political mythology and the making of Natal's mfecane’, Can.J. Afr. Studies, XXIII (1989)Google Scholar; Hamilton, C., ‘“The character and objects of Chaka”: a reconsideration of the making of Shaka as Mfecane “motor”’, J. Afr. Hist., XXXIII (1992).Google Scholar The recent republication of Maclean, Charles (ed. Gray, S.), The Natal Papers of ‘John Ross’ (Durban and Pietermaritzburg, 1992)Google Scholar makes accessible hitherto neglected evidence on the reign of Shaka. Okoye, F. N. C., ‘Dingane: a reappraisal’, J. Afr. Studies, X (1969) is a defence of Dingane which deals, however, mainly with his relations with whites.Google Scholar

⁶ Mael, R., ‘The problem of political integration in the Zulu Empire’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1974), 115–67.Google Scholar

⁷ Brookes, E. H. and Webb, C. de B., A History of Natal (Pietermaritzburg, 1965), 127.Google Scholar

⁸ Cope, R. L., ‘Political power within the Zulu kingdom and the “Coronation Laws” of 1873’, Journal of Natal and Zulu History, VIII (1985), 11–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ C.2222, no. 53, pp. 206–7, Frere to Hicks Beach, 13 Dec. 1878, encl. 2.

¹⁰ Public Record Office, London (henceforth PRO) C.O. 179/114, minute by Carnarvon, 20 June 1874, on Confid., Pine to Kimberley, 13 April 1874.

¹¹ C.1137, p. 18, Report of the Expedition sent by the Government of Natal to Install Cetywayo as King of the Zulus, by Shepstone, n.d.

¹² Cope, , ‘Political Power’.Google Scholar

¹³ C.1137, p. 16, Shepstone's Report.

¹⁴ C.1137, p. 3, Pine to Kimberley, 13 April 1874.

¹⁵ C.2222, no. 33, p. 115, Hicks Beach to Frere, 31 Dec. 1878; PRO, C.O. 48/487, minute by Fairfield, 2 Jan. 1879, on Frere to Hicks Beach, 13 Nov. 1878.

¹⁶ PRO, Carnarvon Papers, 30/6/33, no. 86, Frere, to Carnarvon, , 19 07 1877.Google Scholar

¹⁷ On missionaries in Zululand in this period see Etherington, N. A., Preachers, Peasants and Politics in Southern Africa, 1835–1880 (London, 1978), 74–86Google Scholar, and ‘Anglo-Zulu relations 1856–78’, in Duminy, A. and Ballard, C. (eds.), The Anglo-Zulu War: New Perspectives (Pietermaritzburg, 1981), 13–52Google Scholar; Hernaes, P., ‘The Zulu kingdom, Norwegian missionaries, and British imperialism 1845–1879’, in Simensen, J. (ed.), Norwegian Missions in African History, Vol. I: South Africa 1845–1906 (Oslo, 1986), 102–86.Google Scholar For an attempt to set Zulu missions in a broader nineteenth-century South African context, see Cope, R. L., ‘Christian missions and independent African chiefdoms in South Africa in the 19th century’, Theoria, LII (05 1979), 1–23.Google Scholar

¹⁸ C.1137, p. 19, Shepstone's Report.

¹⁹ Hernaes, , ‘Zulu kingdom’, 133–6.Google Scholar

²⁰ C.1137, p. 19, Shepstone's Report.

²¹ C.1961, no. 12, p. 47, Report on Zululand by F. B. Fynney, 4 July 1877, encl, in Shepstone to Carnarvon, 24 July 1877.

²² Hernaes, , ‘Zulu kingdom’, 147.Google Scholar

²³ Cope, , ‘Christian missions’, 16–17.Google Scholar

²⁴ Hernaes, , ‘Zulu kingdom’, passim.Google Scholar

²⁵ The Natal Mercury, 15 04, 1 and 25 05, 15 06, 6 07, 5 10 1875Google Scholar; The Natal Witness, 18 06, 13 07 1875Google Scholar; The Natal Colonist, 15, 25, 29 06 1875.Google Scholar

²⁶ PRO 30/6/38, no. 30, Wolseley, to Carnarvon, , 8 07 1875Google Scholar; PRO 30/6/47, Shepstone, to Carnarvon, , 26 08 1875Google Scholar; PRO 30/6/49, p. 159, memo by Carnarvon of conversations with Wolseley, 7–8 Oct. 1875.

²⁷ Chesson, to The Times, 12 08 1875Google Scholar, quoted in The Natal Mercury 5 10 1875.Google Scholar

²⁸ De Kiewiet, C. W., The Imperial Factor in South Africa (Cambridge, 1937), 43.Google Scholar

²⁹ Wolseley Papers, Hove, Minute Book, Natal, 1875, no. 49, 29 Aug. 1875.

³⁰ PRO 30/6/38, nos. 32 and 33, Robertson to Shepstone, 18 and 25 June 1875.

³¹ See below, pp. 253–4, and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel archives, London, (henceforth SPG) Wigram Papers (henceforth WP) no. 204, Robertson, to McCrorie, , 6 02 1878.Google Scholar

³² The Natal Witness, 27 04 1877.Google Scholar

³³ The Natal Witness, 1 05 1877Google Scholar; The Natal Mercury, 10 04 1877.Google Scholar

³⁴ The Natal Witness, 15 06 1877, letterGoogle Scholar; The Natal Mercury, 8 05 1877, editorial.Google Scholar

³⁵ Government House Records, Natal Archive Depot, Pietermaritzburg (henceforth GH) 1397, Petition of Zululand Missionaries to Bulwer, 18 May 1877.

³⁶ PRO 30/6/38, no. 108, Bulwer, to Carnarvon, , 14 09 1877.Google Scholar

³⁷ Natal Archives Depot, Pietermaritzburg, Colenso Papers (henceforth NACP), vol. 3, Robertson to Sanderson, 9 April 1877. Robertson had high hopes of Sanderson, but he turned Colensoite – hence the location of these papers.

³⁸ GH 1397, Copy, Robertson, to Bulwer, , 9 04 1877.Google Scholar

³⁹ NACP, vol. 3, Robertson, to Sanderson, , 20 04 1877.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ The Net, 1 09 1877, 130Google Scholar, letter from Robertson, Kwamagwaza, 19 June 1877.

⁴¹ SPG, D46, p. 329, Robertson, to Moore, , 2 07 1877.Google Scholar

⁴² GH 1397, Copy, Bulwer, to Robertson, , 15 06 1877Google Scholar; Natal Archive Depot, Pietermaritzburg, Secretary for Native Affairs papers (henceforth SNA) I/1/29, Fynney, to Shepstone, J. W., 18 07 1877.Google Scholar

⁴³ The Natal Witness, 26 06 1877.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ GH 1220, p. 282, Bulwer, to Carnarvon, , 27 11 1877.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ SPG, vol. E.26, pp. 1375–6, Report of S. M. Samuelson for quarter ending June 1876.

⁴⁶ WP, no. 186, Robertson, to Samuelson, , 1 10 1877.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ WP, no. 190, Robertson, to Longcast, , 1 10 1877.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Etherington, , ‘Anglo-Zulu relations’, 42–3.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ WP, no. 187, Robertson, to Shildrick, , 15 10 1877.Google Scholar Etherington quotes part of this letter, ‘Anglo-Zulu relations’, 43.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ GH 1397, Robertson, to Bulwer, , 16 11 and 1 12 1877.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Etherington, , ‘Anglo-Zulu relations’, 43–4.Google Scholar Etherington attributes Robertson's turning against the king in part to the former's personal problems (p. 39).

⁵² Natal Archive Depot, Pietermaritzburg, Shepstone Papers (henceforth NASP), vol. 26, Oftebro, to Shepstone, , 20 12 1877.Google Scholar

⁵³ Colenso, and Durnford, , History of the Zulu War, 178.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ NACP, vol. 3, Robertson, to Sanderson, , 20 04 1877.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Martineau, , Life of Frere, ii, 232.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ C.2252, no. 4, pp. 15–16, Frere to Hicks Beach, 30 Dec. 1878, encl. Robertson, to Littleton, , 7 12 1878.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Gibson, J. Y., The Story of the Zulus (London, 2nd ed., 1911, reprinted New York, 1970), 108.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Ibid. 136–7.

⁵⁹ Binns, , Last Zulu King, 104Google Scholar, citing an interview with John Dunn in the Cape Argus.

⁶⁰ Records of the Church of the Province, University of the Witwatersrand Library (henceforth CPSA) fAB 264, ‘The Zulu martyr, Maqumusela Kanyile, March 9th 1877’, by A. J. Fowler.

⁶¹ Report and Proceedings of the Government Commission on Native Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1883)Google Scholar, Minutes of Evidence, SirShepstone, T., 7 09 1881, 6.Google Scholar

⁶² Webb, C. de B. and Wright, J. B. (eds.), A Zulu King Speaks (Pietermaritzburg and Durban, 1978), 74 – see also p. 23, n.Google Scholar This compilation reprints Cetshwayo's evidence to the Commission. See also Webb, C. de B. and Wright, J. B. (eds.), The James Stuart Archive (Durban and Pietermaritzburg, 1986), iv, 360Google Scholar, for the similar testimony given in 1903 by Ndukwana kaMbengavana.

⁶³ MrsWilkinson, , A Lady's Life and Travels in Zululand (London, 1882), 225.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Gibson, , Story, 109Google Scholar; Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 3Google Scholar, and Stuart Archive, iv, 297–8Google Scholar; Mair, L., African Kingdoms (Oxford 1977), 112Google Scholar; Cape Commission on Native Laws, evidence, 83, 134Google Scholar; Maclean, J. (ed.), A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1866; reprinted Grahamstown, 1906; reprinted Pretoria, 1968), 22–3.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ The Time of Natal, 3 06 1878Google Scholar, letter from Magema Magwaza [Fuze], 31 May 1878.

⁶⁶ The Natal Mercury, 24 06 1878Google Scholar, letter from Robertson, , 11 06 1878.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ C.2252, no. 4, p. 15, Robertson, to Littleton, , 7 12 1878, encl, in Frere to Hicks Beach, 30 Dec. 1878.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Colenso, , Commentary, 226.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ The Natal Mercury, 8 05 1877.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Gibson, , Story, 133–5.Google Scholar

⁷¹ British Parliamentary Debates, vol. CCXLV, 58–63, 31 03 1879.Google Scholar

⁷² Colenso, , Cetshwayo's Dutchman, 182–3, referring to C.2222, p. 226, and C.2316, p. 18.Google Scholar

⁷³ The Net, 1 01 1877, 3Google Scholar, letter from Robertson, , 27 09 1876.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 60 and 71.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Killie Campbell Library, Colenso Papers, K.C.M. 50093, Mfunzi (who carried out enquiries at Colenso's request) and Mgwazeni (unidentified), in an undated document in Colenso's handwriting; K.C.M. 50043, Mbete (one of chief Seketwayo's men in Zululand, by 1880 in employment in Natal) in Colenso, to Chesson, , 2 05 1880Google Scholar; K.C.M. 50031, Unukwa (an inceku i.e. royal household official) in Colenso, H. E. to Chesson, , 31 01 1880.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Webb, and Wright, , Stuart Archive, iv, 132–5.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid. 78–9.

⁷⁸ Lamula, P., Uzulukamalandela: a Most Practical and Precise Compendium of African History (Durban, 1924, revised ed. Durban 1931, reprinted Marianhill, n.d.), 40–1.Google Scholar I am indebted to my colleague Paul la Hausse for letting me read a translation of the Marianhill edition made for him by E. H. Dahle. Information on the book and its author is in La Hausse's thesis, ‘Ethnicity and history in the careers of two Zulu nationalists: Petros Lamula (c. 1881–1948) and Lymon Maling (1889-c. 1936)’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1992).

⁷⁹ Fuze, Magema M., The Black People and Whence they Came, ed. Cope, A. T., trans. Lugg, H. C. (Pietermaritzburg and Durban, 1979), 107.Google Scholar The first edition, in Zulu, was published in Pietermaritzburg in 1922.

⁸⁰ Gibson, , Story, 134.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Wright, J. and Manson, A., The Hlubi Chiefdom in Zululand-Natal: a History (Ladysmith, 1983), 68.Google Scholar

⁸² NACP, vol. 2, p. 150, Meller, to Colenso, , 24 04 1877.Google Scholar

⁸³ Leslie, D., Among the Zulus and Amatongas (Glasgow, 1875), 190.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Magwaza, Magema [Fuze], ‘A visit to King Ketshwayo’, Macmillcm's Magazine, XXXVII (1878), 431.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ The Net, 1 10 1873, 155.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Cope, , ‘Political power’, 11–31.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ The Net, 1 01 1874, 3–4.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Cope, , ‘Political power’, 19.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ GH 1397, Robertson, to Bulwer, , 26 06 1877.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ WP, no. 226, Shildrick, to Robertson, , 9 10 1877.Google Scholar

⁹¹ NASP, vol. 69, Shepstone, to Herbert, , 14 10 1879, encl, memo, n.d., on Wolseley's settlement.Google Scholar

⁹² SPG, E.25, p. 1324, Robertson, to Bullock, , 16 04 1870Google Scholar; NACP, vol. 3, Robertson, to Sanderson, , 20 04 1877Google Scholar; Etherington, , Preachers, 84.Google Scholar

⁹³ Magwaza, Magema [Fuze], ‘Visit’, 429.Google Scholar See also Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 19–20.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ SPG, E.25, p. 1324, Robertson, to Bullock, , 16 04 1870.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Lewis, C. and Edwards, G. E., Historical Records of the Church of the Province of South Africa (London, 1934), 657Google Scholar, quoting a letter of May 1858; SNA I/6/3, Robertson, to Shepstone, , 17 01 1865Google Scholar; The Net, 1 08 1867, 124Google Scholar, letter from Robertson, 15 Jan. 1865.

⁹⁶ The Net, 1 10 1873, 154–5Google Scholar; Samuelson, R. C. A., Long Long Ago (Durban, 1929), 35.Google Scholar Samuelson was the son of the missionary, S. M. Samuelson.

⁹⁷ GH 1397, Report on Zululand, by Fynney, F. B., 13 07 1877.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ C.2222, no. 56, p. 216, Brownlee, to Littleton, , 16 12 1878Google Scholar, encl, in Frere, to Beach, Hicks, 20 12 1878.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 75 and 19, n.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Colenso, to Frere, , 14 01 1879Google Scholar, quoted in Martin, , ‘British images’, 303.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ C.2222, no. 53, p. 205, ultimatum, encl. 2 in Frere, to Beach, Hicks, 13 12 1878.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Isaacs, N., Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (London, 1836)Google Scholar; Stuart, J. and Malcolm, D. M. (eds.), The Diary of Henry Francis Fynn (Pietermaritzburg, 1950).Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Walter, , Terror and Resistance, 110.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Ibid. 215.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid. 233, quoting Colenso, F. E., The Ruin of Zululand (London, 1885) ii, 407.Google Scholar The omission from the original is mine. Ndabuko was Cetshwayo's full brother and the leader of the movement for his restoration.

¹⁰⁶ Cope, , ‘Political power’, 13–14, 23–6, 30–1.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 66–7, 85.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ C.2695, no. 43, p. 85, Colley, to Kimberley, , 9 08 1880Google Scholar, encl. Report from Osborn, 4 Aug. 1880.

¹⁰⁹ Gluckman, M., ‘The kingdom of the Zulu’, in Fortes, M. and Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (eds.), African Political Systems (Oxford, 1969), 33.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Dlamini, P., Paulina Dlamini: Servant of Two Kings, comp. Filter, H., ed. and trans. Bourquin, S. (Durban and Pietermaritzburg, 1986), 46Google Scholar; Fuze, , Black People, 109Google Scholar; Webb, and Wright, , Stuart Archive, iv, 44.Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Worger, , ‘Clothing dry bones’, 152–3.Google Scholar

¹¹² Gluckman, M., The Judicial Process among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia (Manchester, 1955), 6.Google Scholar In The Ideas in Barotse Jurisprudence (New Haven, 1965), 33–4Google Scholar, Gluckman gives a graphic description of the Lozi king being humiliated by his councillors for acting irregularly and in a manner not in keeping with his position.

¹¹³ Gluckman, , Judicial Process, 6Google Scholar; also Ideas, 34.

¹¹⁴ Cape Native Laws Commission, evidence, p. 82Google Scholar, Toto et al., 14 Sept. 1881. Although ‘eating up’ seems to have involved death as well as the confiscation of property in the Zulu kingdom, as the term was used by the witnesses to this commission it seems to have referred to the latter only.

¹¹⁵ Gluckman, , Judicial Process, 6, 212 (quotation)Google Scholar; Gluckman, , Ideas, 35, 70–1.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Jeal, T., Livingstone (London, 1973, reprinted 1993), 122–3, 175.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Maclean, , Compendium, 60, 94, 114, 145.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Cape Native Laws Commission, evidence, 289Google Scholar, Liefeldt, Theophilus, 11 10 1881.Google Scholar Liefeldt stated he was born in the Xhosa country and could speak only Xhosa till the age of eleven.

¹¹⁹ Ibid. 139.

¹²⁰ It appears in at least three of his publications: ‘Kingdom’ in Fortes, and Evans-Pritchard, , African Political Systems, 33Google Scholar; Custom and Conflict in Africa (Oxford, 1963), 40–1Google Scholar; African Traditional Law in Historical Perspective (London, 1974), 40–1.Google Scholar

¹²¹ A further twist to the story is that Cetshwayo got wind of the plot and tipped the nephew off, so that in the event he escaped death and secured his inheritance. In view of the evidence mentioned above (p. 257) that such leaks were usually not accidental, it may be that the impi was intended as nothing more than a gesture to the favourite assuring him of the king's continued esteem.

¹²² Schapera, I., Government and Politics in Tribal Societies (London, 1956), 103.Google Scholar Cf., in another age and continent: ‘Kingship was essentially personal … much of the royal administration was conducted by the king's own will, voluntas rather than by the law or state machinery … he could rule legitimately through his own will as well as by the law’: Jones, J. A. P., King John and Magna Carta (London, 1971), 60–1.Google Scholar

¹²³ C.1748, no. 165, p. 216, statement of Natal messengers, 2 Nov. 1876, encl, in Bulwer to Carnarvon, 2 Nov. 1876.

¹²⁴ Walter, , Terror and Resistance, 109, 191–2.Google Scholar ‘Caprice, taken seriously’ may have been ‘at the heart of the state’, but to say it ‘prevented the evolution of a system in which officials could develop autonomous procedures’ is to present a one-sided picture. For a much more reasonable and well-informed account of Shaka's use of terror, and the reasons for it, see Hamilton, , ‘Character and objects of Chaka’, 58–60.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ Fuze, , Black People, 105.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ C.1814, no. 1, pp. 3–4, Bulwer, to Carnarvon, , 17 04 1877Google Scholar, encl, report of messengers, 10 April 1877.

¹²⁷ Webb, and Wright, , Zulu King Speaks, 75.Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Dlamini, , Servant, 60–6.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Webb, and Wright, , Stuart Archive, i, 71–2; ii, 206; iii, 147, 314.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ Dlamini, , Servant, 60–1.Google Scholar