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An agenda for women’s history in Ireland, 1500–1900: Part I: 1500–1800

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2016

Margaret MacCurtain  and
Mary O’Dowd
Margaret MacCurtain
Affiliation:
Department of Modern Irish History, University College, Dublin
Mary O’Dowd
Affiliation:
Department of Modern History, Queen’s University of Belfast
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Extract

In the last twenty years women’s history has emerged as a major field of scholarly inquiry. An extensive literature has accumulated on the history of women in western Europe and North America, and the contribution which women have made to many different aspects of western society has been rediscovered. New areas of study have been developed as the gender differences in men’s and women’s lives have been recognised and researched. The expanding secondary literature has also led to a lively debate about the purpose, methodology and theory of women’s history. A central focus of discussion has been the relationship between women’s history and mainstream history. Initially research on the history of women tended to work within the parameters of traditional history: to be fitted into its ‘empty spaces’. But dissatisfaction with the male-centred and patriarchal nature of the predominant historical discourse has led women historians to seek out new methodologies and to argue that consideration of history from the perspective of women, as well as of men, is a major challenge to the whole nature of historical inquiry. As Gerda Lerner, a pioneer of women’s history in the United States, put it, women’s history

challenges the traditional assumption that man is the measure of all that is significant, and that the activities pursued by men are by definition significant, while those pursued by women are subordinate in importance. It challenges the notion that civilization is that which men have created, defended, and advanced while women had babies and serviced families and to which they, occasionally and in a marginal way, ‘contributed’.

Type
Historiography
Information
Irish Historical Studies , Volume 28 , Issue 109 , May 1992 , pp. 1 - 19
Copyright
Copyright © Irish Historical Studies Publications Ltd 1992

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References

1 For an excellent survey of recent writing on women’s history see Offen, Karen, Pierson, Ruth Roach and Rendall, Jane (eds), Writing women’s history: international perspectives (London, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Bock, Gisela, ‘Women’s history and gender history: aspects of an international debate’ in Gender and History, i, no. 1 (Spring 1989), pp 7–30 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Scott, Joan, Gender and the politics of history (New York, 1988)Google Scholar.

2 Lerner, Gerda, The majority finds its past (New York, 1979; paperback ed., 1981), p. 180 Google Scholar; see also Scott, Gender & the politics of history; Bock, ‘Women’s history & gender history’.

3 Scott, Gender & the politics of history, pp 30–31. This is a continuing theme of the contributions in Offen, Pierson & Rendall (eds), Writing women’s history.

4 Editorial in Gender and History, i, no. 1 (Spring 1989), p. 4 Google Scholar.

5 Bock, ‘Women’s history & gender history’, p. 10.

6 See Scott, Gender & the politics of history. For a critique of Scott’s analysis see Himmelfarb, Gertrude, ‘Some reflections on the new history’ in Amer. Hist. Rev., xciv, no. 3 (June 1989), pp 661-70CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Scott’s response, ‘History in crisis? The others’ side of the story’, ibid., pp 680–92. See also Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth, Feminism without illusions: a critique of individualism (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), pp 145-53Google Scholar.

7 See, e.g., Bosch, Mineke, ‘Internationalism and theory in women’s history’ in Gender and History, iii, no. 2 (Summer 1991), pp 137-46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Catherine Hall, ‘Politics, post-structuralism and feminist history’, ibid., pp 204–10; de Haan, Francisca, ‘Women’s history behind the dykes: reflections on the situation in the Netherlands’ in Offen, , Pierson, & Rendall, (eds), Writing women’s history, pp 263-6Google Scholar.

8 Scott, Gender & the politics of history, pp 31–2; Wecker, Regina, ‘Women’s history in Switzerland’ in Offen, , Pierson, & Rendall, (eds), Writing women’s history, pp 360-61Google Scholar.

9 de Haan, ‘Women’s history behind the dykes’, pp 263–6.

10 Bock, ‘Women’s history & gender history’, p. 16.

11 Ibid., p. 17.

12 E.g. comments by Professor Ronan Fanning at the opening of the Society for the History of Women Conference in University College, Dublin, in February 1990.

13 Fitzpatrick, David, ‘Women, gender and the writing of Irish history’ in I.H.S., xxvii, no. 107 (May 1991), p. 273 Google Scholar.

14 Bock, ‘Women’s history & gender history’, pp 8–9; on feminism see, e.g., Kelly, Joan, Women, history and theory (Chicago & London, 1984)Google Scholar; Offen, Karen, ‘Defining feminism: a comparative historical approach’ in Signs, xiv, no. 1 (1988), pp 119-57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fox-Genovese, Feminism without illusions; see also Nash, Mary, ‘Two decades of women’s history in Spain’ in Offen, , Pierson, & Rendall, (eds), Writing women’s history, p. 392 Google Scholar.

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16 Ellis, Steven G., ‘Nationalist historiography and the English and Gaelic worlds in the late middle ages’ in I.H.S., xxv, no. 97 (May 1986), pp 1–18 Google Scholar; Brendan Bradshaw, ‘Nationalism and historical scholarship in modern Ireland’, ibid., xxvi, no. 104 (Nov. 1989), pp 329–51; Art Cosgrove, ‘The writing of Irish medieval history’, ibid., xxvii, no. 106 (Nov. 1990), pp 97–111; Steven G. Ellis, ‘Historiographical debate: representations of the past in Ireland: whose past and whose present?’, ibid., xxvii, no. 108 (Nov. 1991), pp 289–308. A fresh approach was suggested by Gearóid Ó Tuathaigh in his paper to the American Conference of Irish Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the spring of 1991.

17 See, e.g., Cullen, L.M., ‘Economic and social history in the 1990s’ in Newsletter of the Economic and Social History Society of Ireland, no. 2 (Spring 1990)Google Scholar.

18 See, e.g., Foster, R.F., Modern Ireland, 1600–1972 (London, 1989)Google Scholar; Hoppen, K. Theodore, Ireland since 1800: conflict and conformity (London, 1989)Google Scholar. The omission of an analysis of women’s status in twentieth-century Ireland in Lee, J.J., Ireland, 1912–85 (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar is particularly revealing. See also Ward, Margaret, The missing sex: putting women into Irish history (Dublin, 1991)Google Scholar.

19 There are still, however, very few women employed in history departments in Ireland. For the problems which this can present for postgraduate students wishing to study women’s history see Stock-Morton, Phyllis, ‘Finding our ways: different paths to women’s history in the United States’ in Offen, , Pierson, & Rendall, (eds), Writing women’s history, p. 70 Google Scholar; Mary Cullen, ‘Women’s history in Ireland’, ibid., pp 429–30.

20 Scott, Joan, ‘Women’s history’ in Burke, Peter (ed.), New perspectives on historical writing (Cambridge, 1991), pp 54-5Google Scholar.

21 The current committee of the association is as follows: Mary Cullen (president), Mary O’Dowd (secretary), Margaret MacCurtain (treasurer), Maria Luddy (bulletin editor), Caitriona Clear, Rosemary Cullen Owens, Mary Daly, Christine Meek, Katharine Simms, Liz Steiner-Scott.

22 See, e.g., Quinn, David B., ‘Agenda for Irish history, II: Ireland from 1461 to 1603’ in I.H.S., iv, no. 15 (Mar. 1945), pp 258–69 Google Scholar.

23 Joan Kelly, ‘Did women have a renaissance?’ in idem, Women, history & theory, pp 19–50.

24 See Brady, Ciaran, ‘Political women and reform in Tudor Ireland’ in MacCurtain, Margaret and O’Dowd, Mary (eds), Women in early modern Ireland (Edinburgh, 1991), pp 69–90 Google Scholar. For the earl of Kildare’s daughters see Bryan, Donough, Gerald Fitzgerald, the Great Earl of Kildare (Dublin, 1933), pp 2, 55, 94–8, 215Google Scholar.

25 On aristocratic women and political power in England see Harris, Barbara J., ‘Women and politics in early Tudor England’ in Hist. Jn., xxxiii, no. 2 (1990), pp 259-81CrossRefGoogle Scholar, which includes reference to the countess of Kildare.

26 Simms, Katharine, ‘Women in Gaelic society during the age of transition’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, p. 38 Google Scholar; see also K.W. Nicholls, ‘Irishwomen and property in the sixteenth century’, ibid., pp 17–31; Davies, R.R., ‘The status of women and the practice of marriage in late-medieval Wales’ in Jenkins, Dafydd and Owen, Morfydd E. (eds), The Welsh law of women (Cardiff, 1980), pp 93–114 Google Scholar.

27 Simms, Katharine, ‘The legal position of Irishwomen in the later middle ages’ in Ir. Jurist, x (1975), pp 96–111 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Women in Gaelic society during the age of transition’; Nicholls, ‘Irishwomen and property in the sixteenth century’.

28 Cioni, Maria L., ‘The Elizabethan chancery and women’s rights’ in Guth, Delloyd J. and McKenna, John W. (eds), Tudor rule and revolution: essays for G.R. Elton from his American friends (Cambridge, 1982), pp 159–82 Google Scholar; Greenberg, Janelle, ‘The legal status of the English woman in early eighteenth-century common law and equity’ in Eighteenth-Century Culture, iv (1975), pp 171–81 Google Scholar.

29 See Nicholls, K.W. (ed.), ‘Some documents on Irish law and custom in the sixteenth century‘ in Anal. Hib., no. 26 (1970), pp 103-29Google Scholar, for a brief description.

30 For a list of inquisition records in the National Archives see Fifty-fifth report of the deputy keeper of the public records in Ireland (Dublin, 1928)Google Scholar.

31 Brady, ‘Political women & reform in Tudor Ireland’.

32 Ibid., pp 78–9; Simms, ‘Women in Gaelic society’, pp 34—5, 38; Mrs Concannon, T., Daughters of Banba (Dublin, 1922), pp 60–81 Google Scholar.

33 Chambers, Anne, Eleanor, countess of Desmond, c. 1545–1638 (Dublin, 1986)Google Scholar. This and Chambers’s biography of O’Malley, Grace, Granuaile: the life and times of Grace O’Malley, c. 1530–1603 (Dublin, 1979)Google Scholar, would have benefited from incorporating methodological approaches developed by women historians.

34 See, e.g., Concannon, Daughters of Banba, pp 68–9, 88–9, 94–5.

35 See Corish, P.J., ‘Women and religious practice’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 212-20Google Scholar.

36 Brady, ‘Political women’. See Fischer, Sandra K., ‘Elizabeth Cary and tyranny, domestic and religious’ in Hannay, Margaret Patterson (ed.), Silent but for the word: Tudor women as patrons, translators and writers of religious works (Kent, Ohio, 1985), pp 225-37Google Scholar, for the literary activities of the wife of a seventeenth-century lord deputy.

37 Jackson, Donald, Intermarriage in Ireland, 1550–1650 (Montreal, 1970)Google Scholar.

38 See Walshe, Helen Coburn, ‘Enforcing the Elizabethan settlement: the vicissitudes of Hugh Brady’ in I.H.S., xxvi, no. 104 (Nov. 1989), pp 369–70 Google Scholar, for the problems facing one bishop’s wife. More generally see Mary Prior, ‘Reviled and crucified marriages: the position of Tudor bishops’ wives’ in idem (ed.), Women in English society, 1500–1800 (London, 1985), pp 118–48.

39 See, e.g., C. Falkiner, Littori, Illustrations in Irish history and topography, mainly of the seventeenth century (London, 1904), pp 226–7 Google Scholar, 229, 231, 244–5, 318–19, 328–44, 357–61, 397, 401. On fertility and lactation see Dorothy McLaren, ‘Marital fertility and lactation, 1570–1720’ in Prior (ed.), Women in English society, pp 22–53.

40 Dunlevy, Máiréad, Dress in Ireland (London, 1989), p. 77 Google Scholar.

41 For a description of this source see Sheehan, Anthony. ‘Irish revenues and English subventions, 1559–1622’ in R.I.A. Proc., xc (1990), sect. C, pp 35–65 Google Scholar.

42 Gilbert, J.T., Calendar of ancient records of Dublin in possession of the municipal corporation (17 vols, Dublin, 1889-1916)Google Scholar. See Edwards, R.W. Dudley and O’Dowd, Mary, Sources for early modern Ireland (Cambridge, 1985), pp 42–51 Google Scholar, for a description of other municipal sources.

43 See, e.g., Falkiner, Illustrations, 226–7; Concannon, Daughters of Banba, pp 11–12, 115–20; Brady, ‘Political women’, pp 71–3.

44 Casway, Jerrold, ‘Irish women overseas, 1500–1800’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 112-32Google Scholar; idem, ‘Rosa O’Dogherty: a Gaelic woman’ in Seanchas Ardmhaca, x (1980-81), pp 48–53; idem, ‘Mary Stuart O’Donnell’ in Donegal Annual, xxxix (1987), pp 28–38; Walsh, Micheline, ‘Some notes towards a history of the womenfolk of the Wild Geese’ in Ir. Sword, v (1961-2), pp 98–106 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Further notes’towards a history of the womenfolk of the Wild Geese’, ibid., pp 133–45; Gráinne Henry, ‘Wild Geese in Spanish Flanders’ (unpublished M.A. thesis, St Patrick’s College, Maynooth, 1986); idem, ‘The emerging identity of an Irish military group in the Spanish Netherlands, 1586–1610’ in R.V. Comerford, Mary Cullen, Jacqueline R. Hill and Colm Lennon (eds), Religion, conflict and co-existence in Ireland (Dublin, 1990), pp 53–77; idem, ‘Wild Geese in Spanish Flanders: the first generation, 1586–1610’ ’mir. Sword, xvii (1987-90), pp 189–201.

45 O’Dowd, Mary, ‘Women and war in Ireland in the 1640s’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 101-9Google Scholar; Arnold, L.J., ‘The Irish court of claims of 1663’ in I.H.S., xxiv, no. 96 (Nov. 1985), pp 417–30 Google Scholar; Simms, J.G., The Williamite confiscation in Ireland, 1690–1703 (London, 1956)Google Scholar. See also MacNeill, Maire, Máire Rua, lady of Leamaneh (Whitegate, Co. Clare, 1990)Google Scholar.

46 T.C.D., MSS 809–1. Professor Nicholas Canny is currently engaged on a study of the deposition material.

47 For the Boyle family papers and writings see Canny, Nicholas, The upstart earl (Cambridge, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For correspondence by Elizabeth, countess of Ormond, see N.L.I., MSS 2499–501, 2503; see also Burghclere, Lady, The life of James, first duke of Ormonde, 1610–88 (2 vols, London, 1912)Google Scholar. Family papers in N.L.I, and elsewhere include correspondence and other writings by women dating from the second half of the seventeenth century which have never been catalogued or calendared in detail (see, e.g., Ainsworth, John (ed.), The Inchiquin manuscripts (Dublin, 1961), p. 624 Google Scholar).

48 Falkiner, Illustrations, p. 361.

49 Foster, Modern Ireland, pp 133–7. On the gardening interests of Elizabeth, countess of Ormond, see N.L.I., MS 2503.

50 There is no study of Dublin court life, although official and private correspondence could provide material for such a study; for a brief description see Dunlevy, Dress in Ireland, pp 91–5.

51 For a description see Nicholls, Kenneth, ‘Further notes on Ormond material in the National Library’ in Butler Soc. Jn., vii (1977), p. 525 Google Scholar.

52 E.g. Clarke, Alice, Working life of women in the seventeenth century (London, 1919; repr., 1982), p. 256 Google Scholar; MacLysaght, Edward, Irish life in the seventeenth century (2nd ed., Cork, 1950; repr., Shannon, 1969), p. 223 Google Scholar; Falkiner, Illustrations, pp 221, 318. See also Lawless, Jo Murphy, ‘Images of “poor” women in the writings of Irish men midwives’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 291–303 Google Scholar.

53 Lennon, Colm, The lords of Dublin in the age of reformation (Dublin, 1989), pp 143, 149, 156–7Google Scholar.

54 Kilroy, Phil, ‘Women and the Reformation in seventeenth-century Ireland’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 179-88Google Scholar.

55 Minute book of Antrim presbytery, 1671–91 (P.R.O.N.I., D1759/1 A/2); minutes of Lagan meeting, 1673 (ibid., D1759/1E/1); minutes of Burt kirk session, 1676–1719 (Union Theological College). The authors are grateful to Phil Kilroy for these references. See also Latimer, William T., ‘The old session-book of Templepatrick Presbyterian church, 1646–1744’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., 5th ser., xxv (1895), pp 130-34Google Scholar, and xxxi (1901), pp 162–75, 259–72; idem, ‘Session books of First Lisburn Presbyterian congregation’ in Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd ser., vi (1900), p. 183; idem, ‘The minutes of the presbytery of Lagan, 1673–94’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., 5th ser., xxix (1899), pp 407–12; Burghclere, , Ormonde, i, 101–2 Google Scholar.

56 See note 42 above. Davies, Godfrey and Keeler, Mary Frear (eds), Bibliography of British history: Stuart period, 1603–1714 (London, 1970), pp 604–6 Google Scholar, and Helferty, Séamus and Refaussé, Raymond (eds), Directory of Irish archives (Dublin, 1988)Google Scholar are useful guides to local sources.

57 Lennon, Colm, ‘The chantries in the Irish Reformation: the case of St Anne’s Guild, Dublin, 1550–1630’ in Comerford, et al. (eds), Religion, conflict and co-existence, p. 17 Google Scholar; Appleby, J.C., ‘Women and piracy in Ireland: from Gráinne O’Malley to Anne Bonny’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 53–68 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Merchants and mariners, pirates and privateers: an introductory survey of the records of the high court of admiralty as a source for regional maritime history, c. 1500–1800’ in Michael McCaughan and John Appleby (eds), The Irish Sea: aspects of maritime history (Belfast, 1989), pp 47–58; see also Wright, Sue, ‘ “Churmaids, huswyfes and hucksters”: the employment of women in Tudor and Stuart Salisbury’ in Charles, Lindsey and Duffin, Lorna (eds), Women and work in pre-industrial England (Beckenham, Kent, 1985), pp 100-23Google Scholar; Dix, E.R. McClintock, ‘The Crooke family — printers in the seventeenth century’ in Bibliographical Soc. of lre. Jn., ii (1921-5), pp 16–17 Google Scholar.

58 Tuathaigh, Gearóid Ó, ‘The role of women in Ireland under the new English order’ in MacCurtain, Margaret and Corráin, Donncha ó (eds), Women in Irish society: the historical dimension (Dublin, 1978), p. 34 Google Scholar.

59 See Todd, Janet (ed.), A dictionary of British and American women writers, 1660–1800 (London, 1987)Google Scholar; idem, The sign of Angelica: women, writing and fiction, 1660–1800 (London, 1989), pp 161–91.

60 See note 50 above. See also Mooney, Tighernan and White, Fiona, ‘The gentry’s winter season’ in Dickson, David (ed.), The gorgeous mask: Dublin, 1700–1850 (Dublin, 1987), pp 1–16 Google Scholar; The autobiography and correspondence of Mary Granville, Mrs Delany, ed. Llanover, Lady (6 vols, London, 1861-2)Google Scholar; Maxwell, Constantia, Dublin under the Georges, 1714–1830 (London, 1936 Google Scholar; repr., Dublin, 1979). Berry, H.F., ‘Notes from the diary of a Dublin lady in the reign of George II’ in R.S.A.l. Jn., 5th ser., xxviii (1898), pp 141-54Google Scholar, provides a rare insight into the life of a middle-class Dublin woman in the eighteenth century. See also The diary of Mary Mathew, ed. Luddy, Maria (Thurles, 1991)Google Scholar.

61 See, e.g., McNeill, Mary, The life and times of Mary Ann McCracken, 1770–1866 (Dublin, 1960 Google Scholar; repr., Belfast, 1988), pp 197, 254–5; SirMcAnally, Henry, The Irish militia, 1793–1816 (Dublin & London, 1949), pp 101, 205Google Scholar. Rosemary Raughter, a graduate student in U.C.D., is currently researching women and philanthropy in eighteenth-century Ireland.

62 Clarkson, L.A. and Crawford, E.M., ‘Life after death: widows in Carrick-on-Suir, 1799’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 236-54Google Scholar.

63 Compiled by Dr John Green in the Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University, Belfast.

64 Davidoff, Leonore and Hall, Catherine, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle classes, 1780–1850 (London, 1987)Google Scholar.

65 McNeill, Mary Ann McCracken, pp 57, 130–32, 205–6, 244–6.

66 Brophy, Imelda, ‘Women in the workforce’ in Dickson, (ed.), The gorgeous mask, pp 51–63 Google Scholar.

67 This is the main theme of Davidoff & Hall, Family fortunes; see also Wiesner, Merry E., ‘Women’s work in the changing city economy, 1500–1650’ in Boxer, Marilyn J. and Quataert, Jean H. (eds), Connecting spheres: women in the western world, 1500 to the present (New York, 1987), p. 66 Google Scholar.

68 See Davidoff & Hall, Family fortunes, p. 305, for English examples of women in this type of employment.

69 See, e.g., Hufton, Olwen, ‘Women in revolution, 1789–1796’ in Past and Present, no. 53 (Nov. 1971), p. 92 Google Scholar; Hill, Bridget, Women, work and sexual politics in eighteenth-century England (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar.

70 The correspondence of Emily, duchess of Leinster, ed. Fitzgerald, Brian (3 vols, Dublin, 1949-57)Google Scholar documents the interests of the women in a prominent Irish aristocratic family.

71 Dunlevy, Dress in Ireland.

72 Calvert, Karin, ‘Children in American family portraiture, 1670–1810’ in William, & Quarterly, Mary, 3rd ser., xxxix (1982), pp 87–113 Google Scholar; see also Dunlevy, Dress in Ireland.

73 Concannon, Daughters of Banba, p. 242; O’Sullivan, Donal J. (ed.), Carolan: the life, times and music of the Irish harper (2 vols, London, 1958), i, 63Google Scholar; ii, 143–88.

74 Malcomson, A.P.W., The pursuit of the heiress: aristocratic marriage in Ireland, 1750–1820 (Belfast, 1982)Google Scholar.

75 Herbert, Dorothea, Retrospections (2 vols, London, 1929-30Google Scholar; repr., Dublin, 1988); Autobiography and correspondence of Mrs Delany; Diaries of Mary Leadbetter (N.L.I., MSS 9330–46) (currently being edited by Professor Kevin O’Neill); see also Connolly, S.J., ‘Family, love and marriage: some evidence from the early eighteenth century’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 276-90Google Scholar.

76 Hutton, A.W. (ed.), Arthur Young’s tour in Ireland (1776-1779) (2 vols, London, 1892)Google Scholar; see also sources cited in Davidson, Caroline, Woman’s work is never done: a history of housework in the British Isles, 1650–1950 (London, 1982)Google Scholar.

77 MrsO’Connell, M.J., The last colonel of the Irish brigade (London, 1892 Google Scholar; repr., Cork, 1977).

78 Cullen, L.M., ‘The Dublin merchant community’ in Butel, Paul and Cullen, L.M. (eds), Cities and merchants: French and Irish perspectives on urban development, 1500–1900 (Dublin, 1986), p. 195 Google Scholar.

79 Cullen, Nuala, ‘Women and the preparation of food in eighteenth-century Ireland’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 265-75Google Scholar.

80 See W.H. Crawford, ‘Women in the domestic linen industry’, ibid., pp 255–64; Appleby, ‘Women and piracy in Ireland’.

81 Lee, J.J., ‘Women in pre-Famine Ireland’ in MacCurtain, & Corráin, Ó (eds), Women in Irish society, pp 37–45 Google Scholar.

82 Connell, Irish peasant society, pp 66–9; Ross, I.C. (ed.), Public virtue, public love: the early years of the Rotunda Lying-in Hospital (Dublin, 1986)Google Scholar; Murphy Lawless, ‘Images of “poor” women’.

83 For these and other questions see Head-Konig, Ann-Lise, ‘Demographic history and its perception of women from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century’ in Offen, , Pierson, & Rendall, (eds), Writing women’s history, pp 25–44 Google Scholar.

84 Bob Reece, ‘Irish convicts and Australian historians’ in idem (ed.), Irish convicts: the origins of convicts transported to Australia (Dublin, 1989), p. 2.

85 For eighteenth-century crime in general see Connolly, S.J., ‘Albion’s fatal twigs: justice and law in the eighteenth century’ in Mitchison, Rosalind and Roebuck, Peter (eds), Economy and society in Scotland and Ireland, 1500–1939 (Edinburgh, 1988), pp 117–25 Google Scholar. For crimes against women see Malcomson, , Pursuit of the heiress Google Scholar, and Weiner, Margery, Matters of felony (London, 1967)Google Scholar.

86 Curtin, N.J., ‘Women and eighteenth-century Irish republicanism’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, , Women in early modern Ireland, pp 133-44Google Scholar, examines the attitude of the United Irishmen to women.

87 McNeill, Mary Ann McCracken, pp 110–11, 144–5; Myers, Sylvia Harcstark, The bluestocking circle: women, friendship and the life of the mind in eighteenth-century England (Oxford, 1990), pp 7, 25, 38, 113, 251ff, 265CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Annual report of the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, 1990–1 (Belfast, 1991), p. 11 Google Scholar.

88 Cole, Richard Cargill, Irish booksellers and English writers, 1740–1800 (London, 1986), pp 64–6 Google Scholar, 77,90-91.

89 There are many references to Irish women in Phillips, Patricia, The scientific lady: a social history of women’s scientific interests, 1520–1918 (London, 1990)Google Scholar. See also Browne, Irene Q., ‘Domesticity, feminism and friendship: female aristocratic culture and marriage in England, 1660–1760’ in Jn. of Family Hist., vii (1982), pp 406–24 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 McNeill, Mary Ann McCracken, pp 232–44; O’Sullivan, Carolan.

91 A number of Irish convents have records dating back to the eighteenth century. Mary L. Peckham is currently completing a doctoral thesis on women’s religious orders in Ireland, 1770–1850, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. See her ‘Reemergence and early development of women’s religious orders in Ireland, 1770–1850’ in Women’s History Working Papers Series, no. 3 (Graduate program in women’s history, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).

92 See, e.g., P.R.O.N.I., T1013Ü), T3024, T3054, D2907.

93 Hempton, David and Hill, Myrtle, ‘Women and Protestant minorities in eighteenth-century Ireland’ in MacCurtain, & O’Dowd, (eds), Women in early modern Ireland, pp 197–211 Google Scholar.