In the present climate of opinion it is customary to view the attitudes and actions of the USSR in the United Nations — as elsewhere — as dictated only by malice and evil.

Since the gravest issues of peace and war may hinge upon the assessment which is made of the Soviet attitude, it is essential to seek an understanding of the ideas and forces which have shaped it. We have, therefore, attempted in the first place to assess the Soviet position as Moscow may see it, in some instances deliberately giving the benefit of the doubt, where doubt plausibly enters in, to the Soviet side; but the elements of explanation which have inevitably intruded themselves reflect the western frame of reference. The word “may” is in italic since this is necessarily an essay in interpretation; Soviet pronouncements obviously cover only part of the story and have their strong propaganda implications and limitations.

The International Health Conference, convened by the United Nations in New York in the summer of 1946, adopted a Constitution for a World Health Organization. It set up an Interim Commission of persons designated by eighteen named states to prepare for the First World Health Assembly and to carry on tasks inherited from previous international organizations. Unexpected delays in ratifications of the Constitution obliged the Interim Commission to operate for two years. WHO has thus been free to shape its destiny only from the time of the First World Health Assembly in the summer of 1948; it began its work formally as of September 1, 1948. The activities from 1946 to 1948 were largely determined by heritages from earner organizations; these, indeed, dominated the first program of WHO. The intervening three years have witnessed new trends, which some observers applaud and others view with doubt, if not alarm. It may be fruitful at this time to record some of these trends, to note the pressures which caused them and their implications for WHO's program and work-plan.

The fifth session of the General Assembly was officially adjourned at Paris on November 5, 1951 after a Soviet draft resolution to refer the question of Chinese representation to the sixth session had been rejected by a vote of 11 in favor to 20 opposed with 11 abstentions. On November 6, 1951 the sixth regular session of the Assembly opened and, following remarks by the President of France (Auriol), elected as its President Padillo Nervo of Mexico. Representatives of China, France, Iraq, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States and Yugoslavia were elected vice-presidents of the session and Prince Wan Waithay-akon (Thailand), Mrs. Ana Figueroa (Chile), Max Henríquez Ureña (Dominican Republic), T. A. Stone (Canada), Manfred Lachs (Poland) were elected chairmen of the Political and Security Committee, the Economic and Financial Committee, the Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee, the Trusteeship Committee, the Administrative and Budgetary Committee and the Legal Committee respectively. In addition, the session established an Ad Hoc Political Committee, to which it elected Selim Sarper (Turkey) as chairman, and a joint second and third committee.

This issue covers the work of the Security Council from its 559th meeting on October 1 to its 567th meeting on December 6, 1951. The President during October was the representative of Brazil (Muniz), during November the representative of China (Tsiang), and during December the representative of Ecuador (Albornoz). During discussion of the Anglo-Iranian and India-Pakistan questions, representatives of Iran and Pakistan, and a special representative for India and Pakistan (Graham), were invited to participate without vote in the proceedings.

This issue covers the remainder of the work of the thirteenth session of the Economic and Social Council. The Council met in Geneva from July 30 to September 21, 1951.

Organization of the Council: During the thirteenth session great importance was attached to the necessity of insuring that business reached the Council in a well-prepared state and that Members had adequate time to study it. An effort was made to spread the work-load over the year in a pattern which would best facilitate the operations of all the international organizations concerned. Although the Ad Hoc Committee on the Organization and Operation of the Council and its Commissions had suggested three annual sessions of the Council, the majority of members were agreed that the existing arrangement of two regular annual sessions was sufficient — with the qualification that, henceforth, the second session should not be closed before the opening of the annual session of the General Assembly, but should be resumed towards the end of the session. The resumed ECOSOC session would decide how questions referred to the Council by the General Assembly should be handled and plan the basic program of work for the following year. As far as possible, major economic items would be considered in the first regular session of the year, with the bulk of the major social and human rights questions falling in the second regular session. The Council's agenda procedure was modified so that each year the Council would plan its basic work program and calendar of conferences for the following year; moreover, at each regular session, the Council would in the future settle the detailed provisional agenda for the following session — with appropriate provisions for the insertion of urgent items at a later date.

On December 18, 1951 the International Court of Justice delivered its judgment in the fisheries case which had been brought before the Court by the United Kingdom against Norway. By a vote of ten to two the Court established the validity of the Norwegian Royal Decree of 1935 in international law. This reserved to Norway an exclusive fishing zone of four miles based on lines connecting the outermost land points of the jagged coast. Through an eight to four vote the Court sanctioned the Norwegian system of straight baselines and overruled the United Kingdom contention that the four-mile belt should more closely follow coastal contours. This decision ended two years of litigation over a forty-five year controversy.

The sixth session of the Food and Agricultural Organization Conference was held November 19 to December 7, 1951 in Rome. This was its first biennial session. The provisional agenda for the conference included the following: appointment of a Director-General; election of Council members and chairman; emergency action to assist the United Nations in the maintenance of peace and security; final action on the international plant protection convention; establishment of a Latin American fisheries council, and principles of forest policy; review of the world situation and existing trends in agricultural production and consumption; international commodity problems; the activities of FAO and its long-term objectives; the report of the Director-General (Dodd); the technical assistance program; the $8,753,000 budget and other administrative and financial questions; and the relation of FAO to the United Nations.

The sixth annual meeting of the Board of Governors of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development took place in Washington, D. C, September 10 to 14, 1951, concurrently with the meeting of the Board of the International Monetary Fund. In presenting the Bank's Sixth Annual Report to the Board, the President (Black) reviewed briefly the Bank's activities for the year ended June 30, 1951. He pointed out that in all phases of its operations, the year was the largest in the Bank's history and demonstrated its considerable and growing strength. He expressed the opinion that the Bank, unless there was further deterioration in the international situation, could meet all the capital needs of economic development in its member states, to the extent that these needs should be met on a long-term loan basis. In view of this, he questioned the validity of continuing suggestions to vastly increase funds for this purpose. By that he did not exclude the provision of other instruments for providing capital for economic growth and stated that the Bank was studying a proposal for the establishment of an international finance corporation to complement' the Bank by providing equity investments and loans for private enterprise without governmental guarantee. The Bank's report on this proposal was to be presented to the United Nations Economic and Social Council in the spring of 1952.

The Council held a post-assembly session June 21 to 29, 1951 in which air navigation problems figured most prominently. The Council established universal radio telephony procedures recommended by the Airworthiness and the Communications Divisions during their fourth sessions and incorporated them into Amendment 4 to Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommunications) of Standards and Recommended Practices for implementation November 1, 1951. The Air Navigation Commission was authorized to establish a small standing committee, proposed by the Airworthiness and Operations Divisions, to make tentative amendment to Annexes 6 and 8 (Operation of Aircraft, Airworthiness of Aircraft). The Council also approved the implementation January 1, 1952 of the Revised Supplementary Regional Procedures in Meteorology. On the advice of the Air Navigation Commission, the Council approved the proposal by the United States and France to include the New York-Paris circuit in the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network of the European and the Mediterranean Region, subject to review by the European and Mediterranean Regional Air Navigation Meeting in February. Amendments 23 to 28 to Annex 4 (Aeronautical Charts) were adopted; and unless disapproved by a majority of contracting states they would become effective November 1, 1951 and implemented January 1, 1952. The Council endorsed the establishment of regional training centers and directed the Secretary-General to encourage such development and particularly to urge the governments of India, Pakistan, and Egypt to consider further development of centers of Allahabad, Nawabshar or Karachi, and Cairo, not only for the benefit of their own nations, but also for that of neighboring states. Noting the development of prohibited, restricted, and danger areas along international air routes, the Council asked all contracting states to issue communications prior to boundary changes. Mohammed El Hakeem (Egypt) and A. C. Carter (United Kingdom) were appointed to the Air Navigation Commission. In conclusion, the third report of the Organization's technical assistance program was approved with its estimated $900,000 budget for 1952 for transferral to the United Nations. The retirement of the Secretary-General, Albert Roper, was deferred until December 31, 1951.

The 117th session of the Governing Body of the International Labor Organization met at Geneva from November 22 to 26, 1951 under the chairmanship of Paul Ramadier. Meetings of the Governing Body's committees on manpower and employment, finance and administration, relations with other international organizations, industrial committees, technical assistance, and allocations preceded the session, at which reports of these committees were considered. Also on the Governing Body's agenda was the report of the third session of the Asian Advisory Committee, which was held in Geneva from November 10 to 13. The Governing Body authorized the Director-General (Morse) to consult the Egyptian government on suggestions which might result in an investigation by ILO of Egyptian charges that United Kingdom military authorities were using arms to force Egyptians to work in the Suez Canal zone. Among its other decisions the Governing Body accepted an invitation from Brazil to hold ILO's Fifth American Regional Conference at Rio de Janeiro from April 17 to 30, 19S2, authorized the Director-General to undertake consultations with a view to the convening of a tripartite meeting of representatives from coal-producing countries on problems of the coal mining industry, and reaffirmed the need for ILO to continue to assist governments in solving immediate practical problems in the manpower field and, particularly, to provide them with technical assistance concerning the migration process. An invitation from Turkey to locate ILO's Near and Middle East Manpower Field Office at Istanbul was accepted, and an agreement by ILO and the Council of Europe providing for cooperation between the two bodies approved. It was decided that the next session of the Governing Body should be held at Geneva from March 11 to 14, 1952.

The annual joint meeting of the Boards of Governors of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was held in Washington from September 10 to 14, 1951, concurrently with the annual meetings of the Governors of the individual bodies. The Czechoslovakian Governor proposed at the opening meeting that delegates from the People's Republic of China be substituted (in all Fund, Bank and Joint machinery) for the delegates from the “Kuomintang group”. No action, however, was taken on the “expulsion” resolution. At the closing joint session, on September 14, the Governors disposed of the remainder of the substantive work of the Joint Procedures Committee by agreeing that: 1) the seventh annual meeting of the joint Boards of Governors be held in Mexico City in the first half of September, 1952; 2) the Governor for Brazil be chairman for the joint Board of Governors for the ensuing year, while the Governors for China, France, India, the United Kingdom and the United States be vice-chairmen; 3) the composition of the Joint Procedures Committee for the ensuing year be the Governors for Brazil (chairman), Australia (vice-chairman), Lebanon (reporting member), and China, Finland, France, India, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom and the United States.

The General Council of the International Refugee Organization held its eighth session October 23 to 27, 1951 at Geneva. The Council reviewed the annual report of the Director-General for the period July 1, 1950 to June 30, 1951 in which Mr. Kingsley summarized the activities and achievements of IRO since its inception, defined the migration trends for the previous year, and discussed methods being employed to transfer IRO functions to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the Allied High Commission for Germany, and to voluntary groups and local authorities. In a supplementary report on residual problems Mr. Kingsley emphasized the serious refugee problems in Greece, Trieste, Austria, Italy, China, and Korea which would survive the organization's closure early in 1952 despite the substantial completion of IRO activities by that time. He reported that 573 ‘institutional hard core’ cases were being resettled and 1,514 locally resettled but pointed out a lack in satisfactory arrangement for 477 hard core cases in Shanghai, Samar, Greece, and Spain, while particularly emphasizing the need to make intensive efforts to resettle the 398 cases in Shanghai and 900 additional cases in Trieste. Although the Council agreed to delay its communication on residual problems to the United Nations until its next session pending further information on Trieste and Shanghai, it approved a decision first to assist the 477 hard core cases, then to apportion expenditures equally between material assistance and resettlement. At the close of this report on residual problems Mr. Kingsley announced the favorable outcome of the shipping program and satisfactory arrangements with the ‘institutional hard core’, permitting resettlement of 9,000 additional refugees before closure.

The sixth session of the Contracting Parties to GATT met at Geneva, Switzerland, from September 17 to October 26, 1951 under the chairmanship of Johan Melander (Norway). Participating were delegates of the 34 countries which were contracting parties and observers from other governments and intergovernmental organizations.

The Executive Board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization held its twenty-eighth session in Paris October 23 to November 1, 1951. With the design of implementing the UNESCO twelve-year fundamental educational program to improve education and living standards in all the underdeveloped areas of the world and in accordance with the General Conference decision to build a network of regional centers to formulate teacher training methods, the board chose Sevsel Layyam, Egypt as the second regional training center. This village, 40 miles from Cairo, was selected, because it appeared typical of communities in lower Egypt and in the Arab nations in general. Representatives from Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria were expected to begin a twenty-one month course of study early in 1952. However, should unsettled conditions in Egypt forestall its operation, the Board would select an alternate site in the Philippines. A $235,000 allocation of the 1952 budget was approved by the board for the operation of the Egyptian and the Patzcuaro, Mexico centers. The board urged UNESCO members to provide fellowships to Korea for assistance in the educational reconstruction of the country. This request was. based upon a report by the Director-General (Bodet) which states that 57 percent of the teachers’ training colleges and high schools in Korea had been destroyed by the war, teachers to training colleges had been reduced 41 percent and high school instructors 54 percent. The board appointed Ronald Adam (United Kingdom) and Constantine K. Zurayk (Syria) to serve with Mr. Bodet on a joint commission of the Organization of American States and UNESCO. A single draft covenant on human rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, as well as civil and political rights, was favored by the board.

On August 14, 1951 the Universal Postal Union submitted a report on its activities for 1950 to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The Vice-Director-General (Fulke Radice) of UPU announced that the organization had formulated its activities according to the criteria established by ECOSOC; upon its recommendation the Executive and Liaison Committee had approved closer coordination of program with the United Nations and the specialized agencies. Recently the UPU had completed two important tasks: the compiling of a directory of post offices throughout the world, and the fixing of land and sea transit rates by the Technical Transit Committee at its second general meeting June 5 to 16, 1951 at Pontresina. Although dependent upon the decisions of the Brussels Congress, the work program for the following year was seen to consist largely in collecting data and preparing new publications to help underdeveloped countries improve their postal services.

From June 1 to 8, 1951 the World Health Organization Executive Board met for its eighth session in Geneva under the chairmanship of Professor Jacques Parisot. Action taken at this session included authorization of the establishment of a regional organization for Africa, a request that the Director-General (Chisholm) contact member states in Europe concerning establishment of a central regional office in Geneva and immediate constitution of a regional organization, and appointment of a regional director for the western Pacific.

At the meeting of the Arab League's Political Committee during October 1951, the committee decided to recommend to the Council that all Arab states, Members of the United Nations press for the inclusion of the Moroccan case on the agenda of the sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly. On October 4, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt (Eldin) requested the General Assembly that the item “violation of the principles of the Charter and of the Declaration of Human Rights by France in Morocco” be placed on its agenda.

The Consultative Council's eleventh session was held in Paris on November 13, 1951, with Robert Schuman, the French Foreign Minister, serving as chairman. In addition to international questions, the Council considered the relationship to be established between the Brussels Pact organization and the Council of Europe, agreeing on the terms of a letter on this subject to the latter. It examined the results of cooperation among the five members in the political, social and cultural fields and in civil defense affairs. With the entry into force of the three main multilateral social conventions, the Brussels Treaty countries were offering complete reciprocity to one another in social security matters. It was resolved that practical schemes for cultural cooperation, especially in education, were to continue to strengthen European solidarity.

The thirteenth session of the Caribbean Commission was held in the Virgin Islands from October 29 to November 3,1951, with Ward M. Canaday (United States) presiding. Items on the agenda included the budget for 1952, consideration of special reports and recommendations, and preparation for the fifth session of the West Indian Conference scheduled to be held in Jamaica in 1952.