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Domestic Workers and Foreign Occupation: Haitian Servants, US Marines, and Conflicts over Labor and Empire in Haiti, 1915–1934

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2019

Matthew Casey
Matthew Casey*
Affiliation:
University of Southern Mississippi
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Abstract

During the US military occupation of Haiti, domestic workers performed the crucial labor that allowed Marine households, the city of Port-au-Prince, and the entire country to function. In this sense, they represented a human infrastructure for the entire occupation. Their experiences show that the debates over labor, race, and sovereignty that defined the high politics of the occupation actually reached into private spaces where face-to-face interactions between occupier and occupied occurred. Domestic work, like other types of labor in the occupation, ran the gamut from highly coerced forms of unpaid child labor and convict work to various configurations of wage labor. Domestic sites influenced mutual processes of race-making, including the US exoticist obsession with Haitian Vodou. Servants’ conflicts with their Marine employers included—but ultimately went beyond—daily struggles over labor. Their proximity to marines influenced domestics’ participation in acts of anti-imperial activism, such as the Caco rebellion, and explains why servants were invoked by radical journalists and cultural nationalist writers who opposed US rule. Domestics’ activities also highlight under-explored areas of Haitian activism, such as their use of formal state institutions to seek redress and their participation in emerging forms of urban protest that included other members of the urban working class. Although novel and relatively small during the occupation, such urban protests have become a staple of Haitian politics in the present day.

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Articles
Information
International Labor and Working-Class History , Volume 96: Blackness and Labor in the Afterlives of Racial Slavery , Fall 2019 , pp. 145 - 167
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Copyright © International Labor and Working-Class History, Inc. 2019

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References

NOTES

I would like to thank Andrew Haley, Jesse Horst, the students in Anne Eller's Yale University graduate seminar on Haiti, the USM junior faculty writing group, and two anonymous reviewers for all of their trenchant feedback on earlier versions of this article.

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27. A.H. Turnage, “Intelligence Report: Office of the Chief of Police, Port-au-Prince,” May 14, 1924, USNA RG 127, E 165, Box 5: Morning Reports of Intelligence to AHC 1924, 2 of 2.

28. Madeleine G. Sylvain, “Ti moun,” La Phalange, April 15, 1939. “At maturity,” Jean Robert Cadet explains of the 1950s, “restavecs are released into the streets to earn their living as shoeshine boys, gardeners, or prostitutes.” Cadet, Restavec, 4.

29. Such situations were common in nineteenth-century Rio de Janeiro as well. Graham, House and Street, 6.

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33. A.H. Turnage, “Intelligence Report: Office of the Chief of Police, Port-au-Prince,” April 24, 1924, USNA RG 127 E165 Box 5, “Morning Reports of Intelligence to AHC 1924 2 of 2”

34. A.H. Turnage, “Intelligence Report: Office of the Chief of Police: Port-au-Prince,” June 19, 1924, USNA RG 127, E165, Box 5, Folder: Morning Reports of Intelligence to AHC 1924, 1 of 2.

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47. On efforts to use cultural and visual markers to separate colonizers from colonized, see Stoler, Ann Laura, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, CA, 2002), 32Google Scholar. On the narratives that Americans used to justify their occupation of Haiti, see Renda, Taking Haiti, chapter 3.

48. Loederer hired two servants for two gourdes a day (1USD = 5 Gourdes), which amounts to six dollars a month for each. Craige hired one servant for three dollars a month and an additional one for six. Both received an additional three dollars for food. Loederer, Voodoo Fire, 111; Craige, Black Bagdad, 4, 56.

49. The minimum daily wage for government laborers was 30 cents, or 1.5 gourdes, which amounts to nine dollars a month. Rural workers earned 20 cents per day, amounting to six dollars per month. Maurice P. Dunlap, “Labor Conditions in Port-au-Prince,” Aug. 16, 1924. USNA RG 59, 838.504/3; “Memorandum in connection with the raising of a subscription by the Patriotic Union,” Port-au-Prince, January 9, 1922, USNA RG 127 E180 Box 1, Folder: Investigation Haitian Affairs 1 of 2.

50. Similar arrangements existed in Chile. See Milanich, Nora, “Women, Children, and the Social Organization of Domestic Labor in Chile,” Hispanic American Historical Review 91 (2011), 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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52. This system has been the subject of numerous contemproary Human Rights reports. See the Restavec Freedom Alliance, https://www.rfahaiti.org/restavec and Restavek Freedom, https://restavekfreedom.org. (Both accessed June 6, 2018). See also, Cadet, Restavec; Cajuste, “A Baby.”

53. Niles, Black Haiti, 171.

54. On the use of convict labor during the US occupation, see Casey, Empire's Guest Workers, 81–3. On corvée labor, see Millet, Les paysans haitiens, 66–68.

55. Le Courrier Haitien, issue no. 2 (May 1920), reprinted in Desquiron, Jean, Haïti à la une: Une anthologie de la presse haïtienne de 1724 à 1934. Tome iv, 1915–1921 (Port-au-Prince, 1996), 218Google Scholar.

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60. Craige, Black Bagdad, 56.

61. Carl Kelsey, “The American Intervention in Haiti and the Dominican Republic,” reprinted in United States Senate, Inquiry into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo: Hearings Before a Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo. Volume 2 (Washington, DC, 1922), 1289.

62. Niles, Black Haiti, 315.

63. Hurston, Tell My Horse, 206.

64. Niles, Black Haiti, 98–9.

65. Stoler, “Tense and Tender Ties,” 843.

66. Seabrook, The Magic Island, 21. Italics in original.

67. Niles, Black Haiti, 172.

68. Loederer, Voodoo Fire, 116.

69. William Jennings Bryan famously described Haitians as “Niggers speaking French” on the eve of the occupation. Schmidt, The United States Occupation, 48.

70. Loederer, Voodoo Fire in Haiti, 112.

71. Niles, Black Haiti, 172.

72. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, 240.

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77. Seabrook, The Magic Island, 12.

78. Renda, Taking Haiti, 4.

79. Seabrook, The Magic Island, 11; Dalleo, American Imperialism's Undead, 22.

80. Niles, Black Haiti, 140.

81. Ibid., 152.

82. Hurston, Tell My Horse, 199–200.

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93. For those who do explore Haitians’ use of the courts during the occupation, see Sanders Johnson, “Occupied Thoroughfares,” 76 and McPherson, Alan, “The Irony of Legal Pluralism in U.S. Occupations,” The American Historical Review 117 (2012): 1149–1172CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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98. “Statement by Antoine Joseph,” Dec. 21, 1931, USNA RG127 E183 Box 1, Folder: Investigations.

99. Sharpless, Cooking 138; Johnson security of private space, 74.

100. Chief of Police, Port-au-Prince to Chief of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, “Mlle. Antoine Titus, rape of, by member of the USMC,” April 5, 1922, USNA RG 127 E 174 Box 1, Folder: Complains: Dept. South 2 of 2.

101. Johnson, “Occupied Thoroughfares,” 74; McPherson, “Personal Occupations,” 571, 596; Wright, Micah, “‘Protection against the Lust of Men’: Progressivism, Prostitution and Rape in the Dominican Republic under US Occupation, 1916–1924” Gender & History 28 (2016): 623–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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106. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, 240.

107. Inquiry into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo: Hearings Before a Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo. Volume 2 (Washington, DC, 1922), 515Google Scholar. On beleifs in the the transformative nature of the occupation, see Renda, Taking Haiti, 120–21.

108. The story was recounted in Niles, Black Haiti, 146.

109. Excerpt of 1920 article from Le Courrier Haitien, reprinted in Desquiron, Haïti à la une, 219.

110. van Nederveen Meerkerk, “Introduction,” 245; McClintock, Imperial Leather, 1, 3.

111. James Weldon Jonshon, “Self-Determining Haiti: I. The American Occupation,” The Nation, August 28, 1920, (238).

112. Kelsey, “The American Intervention,” 1300.

113. Sanders Johnson, “Occupied Thoroughfares,” 76.

114. “Report of Alleged disturbance involving Marines.” from Provost Marshall, First Brigade, US Marine Corps, Port-au-Prince to Provost Marshall. April 16, 1931.  USNA RG127 E183, Box 2, Folder: Natives, Claims from (Injuries and Accidents).

115. For example, see Le Temps articles from September 10–11, 1925, summarized in M.H. Silverthorn, “Intelligence Report: Police Department Port-au-Prince” September 12, 1925, USNA RG 127 E 165 Box 5 Folder: “Morning Intell. Reports to American High Commissioner July–September, Folder 1 of 2”.

116. Unknown article from Le Temps, October 5, 1923 summarized in D.C. McDougal, “Memorandum for the Brigade Commander,” October 6, 1923. USNA RG127 E165 Box 1 Folder “Summary of GDH 1923 1 of 2.” See also, Sanders Johnson, “Occupied Thoroughfares,” 75–76.

117. Smith, Red & Black, 65; Hector, “Charisme,” 22–23.

118. Kaussen, Migrant Revolutions, 38.

119. Kaussen, Migrant Revolutions, 51. The translation of Brouard's Vous is Kaussen's.

120. Office of the Chief of Police, Port-au-Prince, Report on Joseph Jolibois fils, November 9, 1930, USNA RG 127 E38, Box 15. See also McPherson, Alan, “Joseph Jolibois Fils and the Flaws of Haitian Resistance to the U.S. Occupation,” Journal of Haitian Studies 16 (2010), 125Google Scholar.

121. McPherson, The Invaded, 243–45; Duvivier, Max U., Trois études sur l'occupation américaine d'Haïti (1915–1934) (Montréal, 2015), 65–67Google Scholar.

122. Hector, “Charisme,” 20, 23–25.

123. “Jolibois menace,” L’Èlan, August 5, 1930.

124. Smith, Red & Black, 65.

125. Roger Dorsinville, “Lettre aux hommes clairs,” reproduced in Voltaire, Frantz, Pouvoir noir en Haïti: L'explosion de 1946 (Québec, 1988), 187Google Scholar.