Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T09:44:02.217Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Control of protozoal diseases in eastern Africa: The case for environmental considerations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2011

J. M. Gathuma
Affiliation:
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Get access

Abstract

Malaria, African trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, babesiosis and coccidiosis are of great public health and/or economic importance in eastern Africa. Leishmaniasis is an increasing problem in this area and other protozoal diseases which are found among human and/or livestock populations include toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis, amoebiasis, giardiasis, sarcocystosis, Balantidium coli infection and histomoniasis.

Control of the vector-borne parasitic protozoan diseases has been based mainly on the use of pesticides with their attendant, adverse effects on the environment.

The paper describes the public health and economic problems posed by the main protozoan diseases in eastern Africa and discusses their control, stressing the importance of environmental considerations when planning control measures. Further, a consideration of the public health impact of these diseases when drawing up, and during implementation of, major agricultural, hydro-electric or irrigation schemes, is emphasized. The possible effects of control measures on the social and economical welfare of local communities is highlighted.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © ICIPE 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Apted, F. I. C. (1970) The epidemiology of Rhodesian sleeping sickness. In The African Trypanosomiasis (Edited by Mulligan, H. W.), pp. 645649. (George) Allen & Unwin, London.Google Scholar
Armstrong, J. C., Asfaha, W. and Palmer, T. T. (1976) Chloroquine sensitivity of Plasmodiumfalciparum in Ethiopia. I. Results of in vitro test. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 25, 513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Babbott, F. L., Frye, W. W. and Gordon, J. E. (1961) Intestinal parasites of man in arctic Greenland. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 10, 185190.Google Scholar
Beverley, J. K. A. (1974) Some aspects of toxoplasmosis, a world wide zoonosis. In Parasitic Zoonoses: Clinical and Experimental Studies (Edited by Soulsby, E. J. C.), pp. 125. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Binta, G. M. (1984) Humoral responses of cattle to infestation by the ixodid tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (Neumann 1901). Ph.D. thesis, University of Nairobi.Google Scholar
Brown, G. V., Anders, R. F., Coppel, R. L., Saint, R. B., Cowman, A. F., Stahl, H. D., Lingelbach, K. R., Mitchell, G. F., Alpers, M. P. and Kamp, D. J. (1984) The expression of Plasmodium falciparum bloodstage antigens in Escherichia coli. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 307, 179187.Google ScholarPubMed
Buxton, P. A. (1955) The natural history of tsetse flies (cited by Willet K. C.) In The African Trypanosomiasis (Edited by Mulligan, H. W.), p. 766. (George) Allen & Unwin, London.Google Scholar
Chandler, J. A., Highton, R. B. and Hill, M. N. (1976) Mosquitoes of the Kano plain, Kenya. II. Results of outdoor collections in irrigated and non-irrigated areas using human and animal bait and light traps. J. med. Ent. 13, 202207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Court, J. M. and Stanton, C. (1959) The incidence of Giardia lamblia infestation of children in Victoria. Med. J. Aust. 2, 438440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crompton, P. L. and Gichanga, M. M. (1979) A survey of resistance to acaricides in economically important ixodidae (Acari) of the major cattle raising areas of Kenya. Bull. ent. Res. 69, 427–39.Google Scholar
Danciger, M. and Lopez, M. (1975) Number of Giardia in feces of infected children. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 24, 237242.Google Scholar
Dolan, T. T. (1983) Can we vaccinate against East Coast Fever? Kenya Vet. 7, 2931.Google Scholar
Dolan, T. T. and Young, A. S. (1981) An approach to the economic assessment of East Coast Fever in Kenya. In Advances in the Control of Theileriosis (Edited by Irvin, A. D., Cunningham, M. P. and Young, A. S.), pp. 412415. Martinus Nijhott, The Hague, The Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffus, W. P. H. (1977) Theileriosis in Kenya. In Theileriosis. Report of a Workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, 7–9 December, 1976 (Edited by Henson, J. B. and Campbell, M.), pp. 2830. IDRC, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Durfee, P. T., Cross, J. H., Rustman, and Susanto, (1976) Toxoplasmosis in man and animals in south Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 25, 4247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enea, V., Ellis, J., Zavala, F., Arnot, D. E., Asavanich, A., Masuda, A., Quakyi, I. and Nussenzweig, R. S. (1984) DNA cloning of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite Gene: Amino acid sequence of repetitive epitope. Science 225, 628630.Google Scholar
French, J. G., Messenger, H. B. and McCarthy, J. (1970) A study of Toxoplasma gondii in farm and non-farm groups in the same geographic location. Am. J. Epidem. 91, 185191.Google Scholar
Frenkel, J. K. (1973) Toxoplasmosis: Parasite life cycle, pathology and immunology. In The Coccidia, Eimeria, Isospora, Toxoplasma, and Related Genera (Edited by Hammond, D. M. and Loug, P. L.), pp. 343410. University Park Press, Baltimore, Maryland.Google Scholar
Fontaine, R. E., Pull, J. H., Payne, D., Pradham, G. D., Joshi, G. P., Pearson, J. A., Thymakis, M. K. and Ranios Camacho, M. E. (1978) Evaluation of fenitrothion for the control of malaria. Bull. Wld Hlth Org. 56, 445452.Google ScholarPubMed
Ford, J. (1965) Distributions of Glossina and epidemiological patterns in the African trypanosomiases. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 68, 211225.Google ScholarPubMed
Gordon Smith, C. E. (1970) The effects of irrigation on arbovirus infections in west Nyanza: A preliminary study. In Health and Diseases in Africa—The Community Approach (Edited by Clifford Gould, G.), p. 99. E.A. Literature Bureau, Kampala, Uganda.Google Scholar
Haas, R. (1979) Malaria control programme, Somalia Assignment report 5–31 January, 1979, unpublished document EM./VBC/18; EM/SOM/MPD/001, June 1979 (quoted in Inventory of Applied Research in Malaria 1975–1980, UNDP/World Bank/WHO special programme for Research and Training in Tropical Disease, abstr. 12).Google Scholar
Haridi, A. M. (1977) Evaluation of fenitrothion (Sumethion) 1 g/m2 in Sennar area—Sudan. Annual Report, 1977, Unpublished Government of Sudan document (quoted in: Inventory of Applied Field Research in Malaria 1975–1980, UNDP/World Bank/WHO special programme for research in Tropical Diseases, abstr. 198).Google Scholar
Hutchinson, W. M., Dunachie, F. J., Siim, J. C. and Work, K. (1970) Coccidian-like nature of Toxoplasma gondii. Br. med. J. 1, 143144.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, W. M., Dunachie, F. J., Work, K. and Siim, J. C. (1977) The life cycle of the coccidian parasite Toxoplasma gondii in domestic cat. Trans. R. Soc. Med. Hyg. 65, 380399.Google Scholar
Jacobs, L. and Melton, M. L. (1957) A procedure for testing meat samples for Toxoplasma with preliminary results of a survey of pork samples. J. Parasit. 43, 3839.Google Scholar
Jacobs, L. and Frenkel, J. K. (1982) Toxoplasmosis. In CRC Handbook in Zoonoses, Section C, Parasitic Zoonoses (Edited by Steele, J. H.), pp. 167185. CRC Press, Florida.Google Scholar
Johnson, G. (1977) Giardiasis. In Current Veterinary Therapy (Edited by Kirk, R.), Vol. 6. (W.B.) Saunders, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Joshi, G. P., Service, M. W. and Pradham, G. D. (1975) A survey of species A and B of the Anopheles gambiae Giles complex in the Kisumu area of Kenya prior to insecticide spraying with OMS-43 (fenitrothion). Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. Hyg. 69, 91104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Josiah, P. A. O., Siongok, T. A., Kirui, R., Rapuoda, B. and Kang'ethe, P. (1984) Assessment of the medical vectors in Masinga Dam area (Upper Reservoir Tana River). KEMRl/KETRI 5th Annual Medical Scientific Conference, Nairobi 6–10 February, 1984. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Katsube, Y., Hagiwara, T., Imaizumi, K. and Masuda, K. (1975) Latent infection of Toxolasma in swine. Jap. J. vet. Sci. 37, 245252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keating, M. I. (1983) Tick control by chemical ixodicides in Kenya. A review 1918–1981. Trop. Anim. Hlth Prod. 15, 16.Google Scholar
Kihamia, C. M. (1983) Public-health implications of chloro-quine resistance in semi-immune Tanzanians with a note on the use of bacterum (Co-trimoxazole) in treating chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. In Proceedings of the 4th KEMRI/KETRI Annual Medical Scientific Conference (Edited by Tukei, P. M. and Njogu, A. R.).Google Scholar
Kirui, N. H. A., Kibor, A. C., Mwichuri, F. M., Koske, J. K., Olubayo, R. O., Injairu, R. M. and Kariuki, D. P. (1983) Report on field chemotherapy trial to determine efficacy of parvaquone (Clexon®, Wellcome) against naturally occurring East Coast Fever in Kenya. Kenya Vet. 7, 1314.Google Scholar
Koeman, J. H. and Takken, W. (1978) The environmental impact of tsetse control operations. FAO Animal Health and Production Paper 7, p. 43.Google Scholar
Lainson, R. (1982) Leishmaniasis. In CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses, Section C, Parasitic Zoonoses (Edited by Steele, J. H.), pp. 41101. CRC Press, Florida.Google Scholar
Lushbaugh, W. B. and Pittman, F. E. (1982) Amoebiasis. In CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses, Section C, Parasitic Zoonoses (Edited by Steele, J. H.), pp. 513. CRC Press, Florida.Google Scholar
MacKichan, I. W. (1944) Rhodesian sleeping sickness in eastern Uganda. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 38, 4960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mas Bakal, P., Khan, A. A. and Goedbloed, E. (1968) Toxoplasmosis in Kenya—A pilot survey. E. Afr. med. J. 45, 557561.Google Scholar
Masiga, W. (1981) Strategies and costs of control of tick-borne diseases. In Proceedings of the Conference on Impact of Animal Disease Research and Control on Livestock Production in Africa (Edited Huhn, J. E.), pp. 174182. Berlin.Google Scholar
Mbuthia, P. G. (1984) Epidemiology of theileriosis (with emphasis on East Coast Fever) and some aspects of economics of tick control in Transmara Division, Narok District, Kenya. M.Sc. thesis, University of Nairobi.Google Scholar
McHardy, N. (1981) Recent advances in the control of tick-borne diseases (including chemotherapy and chemo-prophylaxis). In Proceedings of the Conference on Impact of Animal Disease Research and Control on Livestock Production in Africa, held in Nairobi, Kenya, 1–5 September, 1980 (Edited by Huln, J. E.), pp. 183189.Google Scholar
McHardy, N. and Simpson, R. M. (1974) Imidocarb di-propionate therapy in Kenyan anaplasmosis and babesiosis. Trop. Anim. Hlth Prod. 6, 6370.Google Scholar
McHardy, N., Haigh, A. J. B. and Dolan, T. T. (1976) Chemotherapy of Theileria parva infection. Nature 261, 698699.Google Scholar
McHardy, N., Hudson, A. T. and Rae, D. H. (1980) Therapy of Theileria parva: correlation of results in culture and in cattle. In The In Vitro Cultivation of the Pathogens of Tropical Diseases, Tropical Diseases Research Series 3, pp. 149152. Schwabe & Co., A. G. Basel.Google Scholar
Nyaga, P. N. (1980) The role of animal management in the control of coccidiosis in livestock. In Proceedings of the Animal Production Society of Kenya, Vol. 12, pp. 4750.Google Scholar
Nussenzweig, R. S. and Nussenzweig, V. (1984) Development of sporozoite vaccines. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 307, 117128.Google ScholarPubMed
Odingo, R. S. (1977) African experience: Some observations from Kenya. In Environmental Effects of Complex River Development (Edited by White, G. F.), pp. 147172. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Ole-Mperre, E. S. (1982) The policy in the control of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis in Kenya. Kenya Vet. 6, 6.Google Scholar
Olubayo, R. O. and Mwongela, G. N. (1978) Toxoplasma gondii and salmonella infection in Colobus monkey. (Colobus abyssinicus). Kenya Vet. 2, 1718.Google Scholar
Olubayo, R. O. and Karstad, L. H. (1981) Fatal toxoplas-mosis in a tree Hyrax (Dendrohyrax arboreus). Bull. Anim. Hlth Prod. Afr. 29, 263264.Google Scholar
Oster, C. N., Rees, P. H., Hendricks, L. D., Perkins, P. V. and Mebrahtu, Y. (1985) Cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania major: The first autochthonous cases found in Kenya. Paper presented at The 6th Annual Medical Scientific Conference on Kenya Medical Research Institute and Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, Nairobi, 4–8 February, 1985.Google Scholar
Oteng, A. K. (1977) Theileriosis in Uganda. In Theileriosis. Report of a Workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, 7–9 December, 1976 (Edited by Henson, J. B. and Campbell, M.), pp. 2124. IDRC, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Otwelo, J. A. (1984) A serological survey of the prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in animals and in man in Kenya. M.Sc. thesis, University of Nairobi.Google Scholar
Payne, D., Grab, B., Fontaine, R. E. and Hempel, J. H. G. (1976) Impact of control measures on malaria transmission and general mortality. Bull. Wld Hlth Org. 54, 369377.Google ScholarPubMed
Radley, D. E., Brown, C. D. G., Burridge, M. J., Cunningham, M. P., Kirimi, I. M., Purnell, R. E. and Young, A. S. (1975) East Coast Fever: I. Chemoprophylactic immunization of cattle against Theileria parva (Muguga) and five theilerial strains. Vet. Parasit. 1, 3541.Google Scholar
Russel-Smith, A. (1976) Preliminary report on tsetse fly spray monitoring. CORP, College House London. (Cited by Koeman, J. H. and Takken, W.) In The Environmental Impact of Tsetse Control Operations, FAO animal Health and Production Paper, p. 44, 1978.Google Scholar
Schein, E. and Voigt, W. P. (1979) Chemotherapy of bovine theileriosis with halofuginone. Acta trop. 36, 391394.Google ScholarPubMed
Schwabe, C. W. (1984) Veterinary Medicine and Human Health, 3rd edn, pp. 464& Wilkins, Baltimore.Google Scholar
UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. Report of the Steering Committees of the Scientific Working Groups on Malaria, June 1980–June 1983 (TDR/MAL/SC-SWG(80–83)/83.3).Google Scholar
Waldeland, H. (1976) Toxoplasmosis in sheep. Toxoplasma gondii in muscular tissue, with particular reference to dye test titres and haemoglobin type. Acta vet. scand. 17, 403411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walzer, P. D. and Healy, G. R. (1982) Balantidiasis. In CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses, Section C, Parasitic Zoonoses (Edited by Steele, J. H.), pp. 1524. CRC Press, Florida.Google Scholar
Watkins, W. M., Spencer, H. C., Sixsmith, D. and Koech, D. K. (1984) Susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine and amodiaquine at Malindi and Msambweni, Kenya Coast. In Proceedings of the 5th KEMRI/KETRI Medical Scientific Conference (Edited by Tukei, P. M. and Njogu, A. R.).Google Scholar
Work, K. (1967) Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from flesh of sheep, swine and cattle. Acta path, microbiol. scand. 7, 296306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zavala, F., Cochrane, A. H., Nardin, E. H., Nussenzweig, R. S. and Nussenzweig, V. (1983) Circumsporozoite proteins of malaria parasites contain a single immunodominant region with two or more identical epitopes. J. exp. Med. 757, 19471957.Google Scholar