Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-qxdb6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T14:57:25.961Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE TWO LIVES OF MASʿUD AMOYAL: PSEUDO-ALGERIANS IN MOROCCO, 1830–1912

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 October 2012

Jessica M. Marglin
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

After France's 1830 invasion of Algeria, Algerians residing outside of the new French colony could potentially be considered French subjects. A number of Moroccans, eager to partake of the legal and financial advantages of foreign nationality, crossed the border into Algeria and obtained documentation falsely attesting to their Algerian origins; they then returned to Morocco, where they convinced French consular authorities to register them as French subjects. This article uses the story of one such pseudo-Algerian, Masʿud Amoyal, to explore the phenomenon of Moroccans who assumed the legal identities of Algerians. In Morocco and elsewhere in the Middle East, the responses of individuals like Amoyal to new legal categories created by European colonization point to the importance of expanding colonial historiography beyond the borders of imperial states. Examining the strategies of pseudo-Algerians in Morocco demonstrates the value of a transnational approach for understanding the full impact of European imperialism.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 44 , Issue 4: Maghribi Histories in the Modern Era , November 2012 , pp. 651 - 670
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

Author's note: I thank the following people whose comments on earlier versions of this article were enormously helpful: Joshua Schreier, Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Nathan Perl-Rosenthal, Julia Clancy-Smith, Beth Baron, Sara Pursley, the four anonymous IJMES reviewers, and the members of the 2010/11 Princeton Center for the Study of Religion's seminar on Religion and Culture. Thanks also to the participants at the conferences “Migration, identité et modernité au Maghreb” (Essaouira, March 2010) and “Judaïsmes du Maghreb et la France” (Paris, June 2010), whose questions greatly improved this article. Generous support from the American Institute for Maghrib Studies and Princeton University's Program in Judaic Studies helped fund the research for this article.

1 On Algerians claiming French protection in the Ottoman Empire, see Cohen, Rina, “Les juifs ‘Moghrabi’ en Palestine (1830–1903): Les enjeux de la protection française,” Archives Juives 2 (2005): 28Google Scholar; and Harel, Yaron, “The Citizenship of the Algerian-Jewish Immigrants in Damascus,” Maghreb Review 28 (2003)Google Scholar. On Egypt, see the archives of the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères in Nantes (hereafter MAE Nantes), Tanger B 1002, French Consulate of Suez, 27 September 1894. On Tunisia, see Lewis, Mary Dewhurst, “Geographies of Power: The Tunisian Civic Order, Jurisdictional Politics, and Imperial Rivalry in the Mediterranean, 1881–1935,” Journal of Modern History 80 (2008): 812, 818CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Clancy-Smith, Julia, Mediterraneans: North Africa and Europe in an Age of Migration, c. 1800–1900 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2011), 233–38Google Scholar.

2 Benton, Lauren, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)Google Scholar, esp. 6–9; C. R. Pennell, “Law on a Wild Frontier: Moroccans in the Spanish Courts in Melilla in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of North African Studies 7 (2002); Lewis, “Geographies of Power,” esp. 795–96; Stein, Sarah Abrevaya, “Protected Persons? The Baghdadi Jewish Diaspora, the British State, and the Persistence of Empire,” American Historical Review 116 (2011): 88–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clancy-Smith, Mediterraneans, 199–246.

3 An important exception is Clancy-Smith, Mediterraneans, Introduction.

4 Stoler, Ann Laura and Cooper, Frederick, “Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann Laura (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1997), 3, 15–18Google Scholar.

5 Ibid., 22.

6 Comaroff, John L., “Colonialism, Culture, and the Law: A Forward,” Law and Social Inquiry 26 (2001): 310CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Lewis, “Geographies of Power,” esp. 815; Will Hanley, “Foreignness and Localness in Alexandria, 1880–1914” (PhD diss., Princeton, 2007), esp. chap. 6. See also Stoler and Cooper, “Between Metropole and Colony,” 3–9.

8 Blévis, Laure, “Les avatars de la citoyenneté en Algérie coloniale ou les paradoxes d'une catégorisation,” Droit et Société 48 (2001): 557–81Google Scholar; idem, “La citoyenneté française au miroir de la colonisation: Etude des demandes de naturalisation des ‘sujets français’ en Algérie coloniale,” Genèses: Sciences Sociales et Histoire 53 (2003): 26. Blévis notes that the category of citizen as distinct from that of French national was first articulated in the sénatus-consulte of 1865; previously, French nationality and French citizenship were, at least theoretically, considered equivalent. Blévis, “Les avatars de la citoyenneté,” 563–65.

9 Miège, Jean Louis, Le Maroc et l'Europe, 1830–1894, 4 vols. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961), 2:575Google Scholar. See also MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, 4 November 1846, document signed by the Directeur de l'intérieur d'Oran (regarding a passport granted in Oran to Abraham Corcos on 2 November 1832). French nationality was a concept that emerged with the promulgation of the Civil Code in 1803, after which anyone “born to a French father, whether in France or abroad, was French.” Weil, Patrick, How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008), 30Google Scholar.

10 Uran, Steven, “Crémieux Decree,” in Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, ed. Stillman, Norman (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2010)Google Scholar. The Crémieux Decree did not include Jews from the Mzab, who remained French subjects.

11 For similar confusion of terms in Alexandria, see Hanley, “Foreignness and Localness in Alexandria, 1880–1914,” 244.

12 The only somewhat detailed treatment of this subject is Leland Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco, 1880–1904” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1970), 263–72. See also Cruickshank, Earl Fee, Morocco at the Parting of the Ways (Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1935), 35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Miège, Le Maroc et l'Europe, 2:574–78; Mansur, ʿAbd al-Wahhab ibn, Mushkilat al-Himaya al-Qunsuliyya bi-l-Maghrib (Rabat: al-Matbaʿa al-Malikiyya, 1985), 32Google Scholar; Kenbib, Mohammed, Juifs et musulmans au Maroc, 1859–1948 (Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1994), 249–52Google Scholar. More recently, scholars working on this type of migration between Algeria and Tunisia have noted that both Jews and Muslims were involved. See Lewis, “Geographies of Power,” 797, 811–24; and Clancy-Smith, Mediterraneans, 233–38.

13 The majority of the documents relating to Amoyal's case are found in the dossier entitled “Messaoud Amoyal” in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325. For a physical description, see the passport issued in Mostaganem, Algeria, on 29 November 1880. Amoyal almost certainly did not read French or Arabic, because on the back of a legal document in Arabic (signed by ʿudūl on 3 Safar 1306) he wrote a summary of its contents in Judeo-Spanish, a common practice among Jews illiterate in Arabic.

14 See the affidavit delivered on 19 November 1880 (in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325).

15 This service was from 19 April to 1 May 1881 (MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, livrée d'armée delivered in Oran on 23 November 1880, p. 4).

16 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Cohn to Albert Grévy (governor general of Algeria), 9 May 1881 and Grévy to Vernouillet, 18 May 1881.

17 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Féraud to de Freycinet, 12 April 1886.

18 See the notarial document (in Arabic), 17 Jumada II 1303/23 March 1886 (in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325).

19 See the livrée d'armée delivered in Oran on 23 November 1880 (in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325).

20 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, passport issued in Mostaganem on 29 November 1880.

21 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Vernouillet to Jules Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, 8 April 1881.

22 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire to Vernouillet, 12 July 1881

23 See Mohammed Kenbib, Les protégés: Contribution à l'histoire contemporaine du Maroc (Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1996), 65–66.

24 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Amoyal to Ordega, 3 April 1884. Unfortunately, the list of debts that Amoyal promised to submit along with this letter is not preserved in the consular archives, making it impossible to draw detailed conclusions about the identities of Amoyal's debtors.

25 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Patenôtre to Ribot, 24 June 1890.

26 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Patenôtre to Ribot, 24 June 1890; see also letter from Mawlay Hasan to Muhammad Bargash, 23 Safar 1302/12 December 1884 (quoted in Kenbib, Les protégés, 190–91).

27 See the provisional patent signed by Féraud on 30 December 1885 (in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325).

28 See MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, three separate declarations signed by notaries on 11, 17, and 18 Jumada II 1303 (17, 23, and 24 March 1886). The notaries’ names were Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Sharif and Idris b. ʿAbdallah al-Sharif.

29 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, al-Turis to Féraud, 7 Rajab 1303/11 April 1886.

30 Archives of the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères in La Courneuve (hereafter MAE Courneuve), CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886.

31 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Féraud to de Freycinet, 12 April 1886.

32 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Féraud to al-Turis, 12 October 1886.

33 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Assayag to Féraud, 22 December 1887: ʿAbd al-Salam Shaʾush (Abdeslam Chaouch, the French consul in al-Qasr) to Féraud, 7 January 1888 and 12 March 1888.

34 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Shaʾush to Patenôtre, 16 Shawwal 1306/16 June 1889, 22 Shawwal 1306/22 June 1889, and 21 Dhu al-Qaʿda 1306/20 July 1889.

35 See the note by Patenôtre written on the patent of protection delivered to Amoyal on 15 May 1889 (in MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325).

36 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, governor general of Algeria to Patenôtre, 16 May 1890. On 15 June 1890, Patenôtre canceled Amoyal's military record (see the note on the carnet militaire in Amoyal's dossier).

37 Saïd Sayagh, La France et les frontières Maroco–Algériennes, 1873–1902 (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1986). Algeria and Morocco had been separate political entities since the Ottomans established Algiers as their primary base in North Africa in 1525; some Moroccan dynasties previously included part or all of Algeria in their territory.

38 In 1886, officials counted 17,445 Moroccans living in Algeria. Kateb, Kamel, Européens, “indigènes” et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): Représentations et réalités des populations (Paris: Institut National d'Etudes Démographiques, 2001), 187Google Scholar. See also Decroux, Paul, Les Algériens musulmans au Maroc: Condition juridique et sociale (Boulogne-sur-Seine: Extrait du Recueil de Législation et de Jurisprudence Marocaines, 1938), 1Google Scholar; and Schreier, Joshua, Arabs of the Jewish Faith: The Civilizing Mission in Colonial Algeria (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2010), 17, 25Google Scholar.

39 Decroux, Les Algériens musulmans au Maroc, 3–9.

40 On consular protection in Morocco, see Cruickshank, Morocco at the Parting of the Ways; Miège, Le Maroc et l'Europe, 2:548–59, 3:263–92, 4:355–59; Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco”; Mustafa Bu Shaʿraʾ, al-Istitan wa-l-Himaya bi-l-Maghrib 1280–1311 (1863–1894), 4 vols. (Rabat: al-Matbaʿa al-Malikiyya, 1984–89); Ibn Mansur, Mushkilat al-Himaya; and Kenbib, Les protégés.

41 Kenbib, Les protégés, 96.

42 Miège, Jean Louis, “La bourgeoisie juive du Maroc au XIXe siècle,” in Judaisme d'Afrique du Nord aux XIXe-XXe siècles, ed. Abitbol, Michel (Jerusalem: Institut Ben Zvi, 1980)Google Scholar.

43 Smith, Andrea L., “Citizenship in the Colony: Naturalization Law and Legal Assimilation in 19th-Century Algeria,” Political and Legal Anthropology Review 19 (1996): 36–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, certificates for Judas Amar (first dated 5 May 1868): Moses Corcos (12 April 1869) and Salomon Corcos (29 May 1869). For the same practice in Egypt, see MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, French Consulate of Suez, 27 September 1894.

45 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 47, Montfraix (chargé d'affaires à Tanger) to MAE, 1 August 1883 and CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886.

46 Noiriel, Gérard, La tyrannie du national: Le droit d'asile en Europe (1793–1993) (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1991), 92Google Scholar; idem, “Surveiller les déplacements ou identifier les pesonnes? Contribution à l'histoire du passeport en France de la Ire à la IIIe République,” Genèses: Sciences Sociales et Histoire 30 (1998): 100; Torpey, John, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 116Google Scholar.

47 The testimony of two witnesses was only necessary if the individual was not already personally known to the government official granting the passport: d'Hartoy, Maurice, Histoire du passeport français, depuis l'antiquité jusqu’à nos jours (Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honoré Champion, 1937), 63Google Scholar; Noiriel, “Surveiller les déplacements ou identifier les personnes,” 94.

48 See MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886 and CP Maroc 51, Féraud to MAE, 23 July 1886.

49 Viser was used in the sense of having “a document examined . . . and having vu, visa, or a similar word written on it.” Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française (Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, 1835), “viser.”

50 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 51, Féraud to MAE, 23 July 1886.

51 Ibid.

52 See, for example, Clancy-Smith, Mediterraneans, 4, 215–19.

53 For a full text of the Treaty of Madrid in French and Arabic, see Ibn Mansur, Mushkilat al-Himaya, 193–208.

54 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 51, Féraud to MAE, 23 July 1886.

55 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887; MAE Nantes, Tanger A 175, governor general of Algeria to le Comte d'Aubigny, 2 June 1893.

56 Miège, Le Maroc et l'Europe, 2:555–56, 574–78; Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco,” 262–74; Ibn Mansur, Mushkilat al-Himaya, 31–32, 52.

57 Ibn Mansur, Mushkilat al-Himaya, 44–47; Kenbib, Les protégés, 94–210.

58 Kenbib, Les protégés, 13–18. See also Bowie, Leland, The Impact of the Protégé System in Morocco, 1880–1912 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies Africa Program, 1970)Google Scholar.

59 See also Direction des Archives Royales in Rabat (hereafter DAR), Himayat, 19778, Mawlay Hasan to Muhammad Bargash, 14 Muharram 1295/18 January 1878.

60 Noiriel, La tyrannie du national, 68–69; Torpey, The Invention of the Passport, 70, 80–83.

61 DAR, Himayat, 24554, Mawlay Muhammad to Bargash, 10 Muharram 1287/12 April 1870.

62 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 185, Vernouillet to Waddington, 5 February 1879.

63 DAR, Himayat, 10090, Bargash to Ambassadors in Tangier, 26 Safar 1297/8 February 1880.

64 Bargash ends this letter by mentioning the parallel case of the Ottoman Empire; Moroccan subjects would henceforth be like “the subjects of the Ottoman Sultan, [in] that their right to be exempt from the laws of the country, or from paying what they owe to their homeland [li-waṭanihā al-aṣalī], is not recognized.” The Ottoman Empire was generally more successful at reining in abuses of protection and false claims of foreign nationality than was Morocco: see Van Den Boogert, Maurits H., The Capitulations and the Ottoman Legal System: Qadis, Consuls, and Beratlıs in the 18th Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005)Google Scholar, esp. chap. 2.

65 DAR, Himayat, 10300, Matthews to Bargash, 11 March 1880.

66 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Bargash to Féraud, 4 Rajab 1304/29 March 1887 (annexed to letter from Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887).

67 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 175, governor general of Algeria to the prefect of Algiers and the generals of Oran and Constantine, 25 October 1888. See also Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco,” 271–72.

68 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Bourée to MAE, 1850 (quoted in Féraud to Flourens, 29 September 1887).

69 Ibid.

70 Many patents of nationality mention that they were given “in accordance with the ministerial circular of 20 January 1869.” See, for instance, MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, certificates for: Jacob Abecassis, 7 September 1871; Israel Nessim, 28 December 1871; Isaac Ben Yaich, 7 February 1873.

71 See MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, patents of nationality dated 5 May 1868, 8 May 1870, 5 May 1871, 10 May 1872, 6 May 1873, 6 May 1874, 6 May 1875. (There is no patent for 1869.)

72 Fifteen Algerians registered at the French consulate in Essaouira: ten did so once, two registered twice, and two registered three times (MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002).

73 See, for instance, DAR, Himayat, 19778, Mawlay Hasan to Bargash, 14 Muharram 1295/18 January 1878; DAR, Himayat, 19828, Mawlay Hasan to Bargash, 6 Muharram 1295/10 January 1878. See also MAE Nantes, Tanger A 140, vice consul in Casablanca, Rabat, and Mazagan to Vernouillet, 3 September 1877; MAE Nantes, Tanger A 185, Vernouillet to Waddington, 5 February 1879 and 30 January 1880; MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887.

74 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 185, Vernouillet to Waddington, 5 February 1879.

75 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 47, Montfraix to MAE, 1 August 1883.

76 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Vernouillet to Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, 8 April 1881.

77 MAE Nantes Tanger B 1325, Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire to Vernouillet, 12 July 1881.

78 MAE Nantes Tanger A 200, French Consul in Casablanca to Ordega, 24 January 1884.

79 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 47, Montfraix to MAE, 1 August 1883, and MAE to Montfraix, 25 August 1883; MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 49, Féraud to Freycinet, 16 December 1885 (quoted in Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco,” 266).

80 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 47, Montfraix to MAE, 1 August 1883.

81 Féraud died of illness at the age of fifty-nine. For his biography, see Lalmi, Nedjma Abdelfettah, “Introduction,” in Laurent-Charles Féraud, Histoire de Bougie (Saint-Denis: Editions Bouchène, 2001), 7–12Google Scholar. See also the entry by Messaoudi, Alain in Dictionnaire des orientalistes de langue française, ed. Pouillon, François (Paris: IISMM: Karthala, 2008), 383Google Scholar.

82 On Féraud and the protection of Jews, see Jessica Marglin, “Jews into Frenchmen? The Alliance Israélite Universelle and French Pre-Colonial Policy in Morocco, 1862–1912” (senior honors thesis, Harvard College, 2006), chap. 2.

83 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to de Freycinet, 6 January 1886.

84 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886.

85 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 51, Féraud to MAE, 23 July 1886.

86 Ennaji, Mohammed, Expansion européenne et changement social au Maroc (XVIe–XIXe siècles) (Casablanca: Editions Eddif, 1996), chap. 3Google Scholar.

87 See Schroeter, Daniel J., Merchants of Essaouira: Urban Society and Imperialism in Southwestern Morocco, 1844–1886 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), esp. 110, 172–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Jessica Marglin, “In the Courts of the Nations: Jews, Muslims, and Legal Pluralism in Nineteenth-Century Morocco” (PhD diss., Princeton University, forthcoming), esp. chaps. 2 and 5.

88 Kenbib, Les protégés, 96, 183–213.

89 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886. In 1884, Amoyal claimed 11,109 douros in unpaid debts (MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Amoyal to Ordega, 3 April 1884).

90 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to MAE, 12 April 1886.

91 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887.

92 Féraud claimed that it was “far from his thinking to raise a question of race or religion.” Ibid.

93 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 55, Féraud to Flourens, 7 January 1888 and 26 March 1888 (cited in Bowie, “The Protégé System in Morocco,” 269–70).

94 See, for example, letters from the Jewish community in Fes to the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU) in Paris, in the Archives of the AIU, Maroc III C 10 g.17, 8 Kislev 5640, and Nisan 5650 (both received 14 April 1890).

95 See in particular MAE Nantes, Tanger A 200, “Enregistrement de la correspondance de la Légation aux autorités consulaires au Maroc.” This carton consists of correspondence between the legation in Tangier and French consulates elsewhere in Morocco between 1889 and 1897, mostly concerning requests for information about individual Moroccans that the colonial government in Algeria had sent to the French legation in Tangier.

96 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 175, governor general of Algeria to le Comte d'Aubigny, 24 April 1893, and le Comte d'Aubigny to governor general of Algeria, 1 May 1893.

97 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 175, governor general of Algeria to le Comte d'Aubigny, 2 June 1893.

98 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 307, dossier of Mohammed ould Bennonar Bensalah, 1903; dossier of Mohammed Abdallah b. Ahmed, 1906; dossier of Mohammed ben Mohammed Bou Dchich, 1907; dossier of Saad ben Jacob Afriat, 1908–1909.

99 MAE Nantes, Tanger A 518, Michaux-Bellaire to Saint René Taillandier, 5 November 1902.

100 This also seems true of the Ottoman Empire, where most Algerians who claimed French nationality were Jewish. See Abbasi, Mustapha, “From Algeria to Palestine: The Algerian Community in the Galilee from the Late Ottoman Period until 1948,” Maghreb Review 28 (2003): 44Google Scholar; Harel, “Algerian-Jewish Immigrants in Damascus,” 294.

101 See the annex to MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 51, Féraud to Freycinet, 23 July 1886.

102 Demographic statistics for 19th-century Morocco are notoriously unreliable. For a good summary see Laskier, Michael M. and Bashan, Eliezer, “Morocco,” in The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times, ed. Simon, Reeva Spector, Laskier, Michael M., and Reguer, Sara (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 475–76Google Scholar.

103 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, “Attestations, certificats de naturalisation, ou de possession de passeports.”

104 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, “Passeports, 1845–1896.” See also MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1002, “Registre de délivrance et de visa des passeport.” Out of fifty-four passports issued in Mogador between 1874 and 1896, eleven were for Jews who claimed to have been born in Algeria (and none were for Muslims claiming to be of Algerian origin).

105 See, for example, Stein, “Protected Persons?,” 84–85.

106 See, for example, Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira, esp. 21–22; Schroeter, Daniel J., The Sultan's Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi World (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002)Google Scholar, esp. 1–4; and García-Arenal, Mercedes and Wiegers, Gerard Albert, A Man of Three Worlds: Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003)Google Scholar, esp. xix–xxii, 32–35.

107 Kenbib, Juifs et musulmans, 193–252; Kenbib, Les protégés, 225–44.

108 See esp. MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 50, Féraud to Freycinet, 12 April 1886; MAE Nantes, Tanger A 175, governor general of Algeria to the prefect of Algiers and the generals of Oran and Constantine, 25 October 1888.

109 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887.

110 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 53, Bourée to MAE, 1850 (quoted in Féraud to MAE, 29 September 1887). See also Schreier, Arabs of the Jewish Faith, 92–93.

111 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, Isaac Cohen (résponsable de la Consistoire Israélite d'Oran) to governor general of Algeria, 9 May 1881.

112 MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1325, governor general of Algeria to Vernouillet, 18 May 1881. See also MAE Nantes, Tanger B 1326, Consistoire Israélite d'Oran to Vernouillet, 28 January 1881.

113 Though there remains much room for the exploration of commercial networks among North African Jews in particular, the ties linking Sephardic merchants across the Mediterranean basin are well known. See, for example, Trivellato, Francesca, “The Port Jews of Livorno and Their Global Networks of Trade in the Early Modern Period,” Jewish Culture and History 7 (2004): 31–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Stein, Sarah Abrevaya, Plumes: Ostrich Feathers, Jews, and a Lost World of Global Commerce (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chap. 3.

114 MAE Courneuve, CP Maroc 51, Féraud to MAE, 23 July 1886.

115 al-Manuni, Muhammad, Mazahir Yaqzat al-Maghrib al-Hadith, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1985), 1:321–34Google Scholar; Laroui, Abdellah, Les origines sociales et culturelles du nationalisme marocain (1830–1912) (Paris: François Maspero, 1977), 315–17Google Scholar.