Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T22:45:07.271Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Women in a Men's House the Women M.P.s, 1919–1945

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2009

Brian Harrison
Brian Harrison
Affiliation:
Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

‘Anybody who has bred horses will tell you’, the anti-feminist M.P. Major Falle informed M.P.s in 1923, when opposing women's full admission to Cambridge University, ‘that it is folly in the extreme to put colts and fillies together’. More subtle was the argument of Lord Hugh Cecil; concerned with what we now call the ‘chemistry’ of human relationships, he claimed that only a single-sex environment produces the ‘nervous intensity’ that launches major intellectual achievement and significant shifts in national opinion. Anti-feminist faith in segregation applied also to politics. Before 1918, parliament was what social anthropologists would now call a ‘men's house’ as with the kindred London clubs and colleges in Oxford and Cambridge, women's admission to it was slow and reluctant. If women wanted to participate in public life, it was argued, they should form clubs or parliaments of their own. Unlike some anti-feminists, Cecil's desire for segregation did not lead him to oppose votes for women because he saw the elector as simply an individual in a polling-booth, but he shared the anti-feminists' idea that the M.P. ‘resembles the limb of a body’, and so should be recruited solely from men. Nobody listened; within months of getting the vote, women (even unenfranchised women between 21 and 30) became eligible for parliament, and mixed universities eventually became the norm.

Type
Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , September 1986 , pp. 623 - 654
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Falle, , H[ouse of] C[ommons] deb[ates], 20 07 1923, col. 2698Google Scholar. Lord Hugh to Lord Robert Cecil, 4 Apr. 1918, Hatfield House MSS, CHE 54/17. Cecil, H., ‘Women in parliament’, Pall Mall Gazette, 5 12 1919, p. 8Google Scholar. See also my Separate spheres. The opposition to women's suffrage in Britain (1978), ch. V.

2 Craig, F W S, British electoral facts 1885–1975 (1976), p 78Google ScholarButler, D E and Sloman, A, British political facts 1900–1979 (5th edn, 1980), pp 206–8, 230Google ScholarGuardian, 16 Sept 1985, p 10

3 Rasmussen, J S, ‘The political integration of British women The response of a traditional system to a newly emergent group’, Social Science History, VII, 1 (winter, 1983), 67Google Scholar See also Sherrard, K, ‘The political history of women in Australia’, Australian Quarterly, XV, 4 (12 1943), 50Google Scholar, Duverger, M, The political role of women (UNESCO, 1955), p 147Google Scholar, Vallance, E, Women in the House A study of women Members of Parliament (1979), p 33Google Scholar

4 , P E P, Sex, career and family (Beverly Hills, 1971), p 23Google Scholar

5 Time and Tide, 1 Dec 1922, p 1173 These questions beset a W F L conference in 1928, reported in The Vote, 23 Mar 1928, p 91

6 The Guardian, 7 July 1978, p 9 For the W F L conference, see its Bulletin, no 139 (29 10 1937), pp 2–3Google Scholar See also Steed's, Michael letter in The Times, 18 02 1981, p 15Google Scholar

7 Currell, M., Political woman (1974), pp. 58–9, 63Google Scholar. Drewry, G. and Brock, J., The impact of women on the house of lords (Glasgow, 1983), pp. 13–14Google Scholar. For the U.S.A., see Werner, E. E., ‘Women in Congress 1917–1964’, Western Political Quarterly, XIX (03 1966), 20, 24Google Scholar. For Australia, see Sherrard, , in Australian Quarterly, 12 1943, p. 50Google Scholar.

8 H.C.deb., 29 Mar, 1928, col. 1392.

9 H.C.deb., 24 Sep. 1943, col. 606.

10 Sykes, C., Nancy, The life of Lady Astor (1972), p. 190Google Scholar. See also annual report of Plymouth Conservative and Unionist Association, 1922, Nancy Astor MSS, University of Reading, 1416/1/1/621.

11 H.C.deb., 13 June 1940, col. 1481.

12 Vallance, E., Women in the House, p. 67Google Scholar.

13 Webb, B., Diaries, 1924–1932 (ed. Cole, M., 1956), p. 150Google Scholar.

14 Currell, M., Political woman, pp. 55–6, 61–2Google Scholar.

15 H.C.deb., 17 Mar. 1944, col. 583. Summerskill, E., A woman's world (1967) pp. 46–7Google Scholar.

16 Daily Express, 28 Nov. 1919, p. 1. Leicester Mercury, 25 Feb. 1939, p. 11.

17 For hats see Daily Telegraph, 11 Jan. 1924, p. 12; Woman's Leader, 11 Jan. 1924, p. 403; Vernon, , Wilkinson, p. 78Google Scholar. For Astor, see Daily Dispatch, 5 12 1928, p. 8Google Scholar, and the extract from Evening News, 8 May 1931 in Nancy Astor MSS, 1416/1/7/37. For Iveagh, , Daily Telegraph, 16 06 1934, p. 10Google Scholar.

18 Maclaren, A., H.C.deb., 23 06 1942, col. 1876Google Scholar. Second earl of Birkenhead, , F.E. (1965), pp. 158–9, 476Google Scholar. For Churchill, see Sykes, , Nancy, p. 208Google Scholar; Churchill, R., Winston S. Churchill, II (1967), 249Google Scholar; Brookes, P., Women at Westminster. An account of women in the British parliament, 1918–1966(1967), p. 182Google Scholar.

19 Cazalet-Keir, T., From the wings (1967), p. 141Google Scholar.

20 H.C.deb., 18 Mar. 1943, col. 1390.

21 Sykes, , Nancy, pp. 220, 277Google Scholar. Stratford Express, 10 Feb. 1939, p. 11.

22 Meux, , H.C.deb., 4 11 1918, col. 1877Google Scholar.

23 Mann, J., Women in parliament (1962), p. 117Google Scholar. Atholl to Lloyd George, 12 Nov. 1924, Lloyd George MSS, House of Lords Record Office, G/1/11/2. See also Katharine, , Duchess, of Atholl, , Working partnership (1958), pp. 134–5Google Scholar. For Bondfield, see Snowden, P., An autobiography, II (1934), 759Google Scholar.

24 Sykes, , Nancy, p. 478Google Scholar; cf. Stocks, , Rathbone, p. 141Google Scholar. Cazalet-Keir, , From the wings, p. 148Google Scholar.

25 North Mail and Newcastle Chronicle, 21 Apr. 1931, p. 6. Moorehead, C., ‘How the clubs of Dickens' London are coping with hard times’, Times, 28 10 1977, p. 16Google Scholar, cf. Wood, David, Times, 15 08 1977, p. 13Google Scholar.

26 The Vote, 2 Aug. 1929, p. 245.

27 Williams, in ‘Women in parliament’, Radio 3 (10 04 1980)Google Scholar cf. Times, 2 Dec. 1981, p. 1; Woolf, V., The London scene (New York, 1975), p. 40Google Scholar.

28 Wilkinson, E., The division bell mystery (1932), p. 91Google Scholar. See also Vallance, E., Women in the House, pp. 107–8Google Scholar; Rodgers, Sylvia, ‘Women's space in a men's house: the British house of commons’, in Ardener, S. (ed.), Women and space. Ground rules and social maps (1981), pp. 58–9Google Scholar.

29 Butt, , ‘Why should a woman be more like a man?’, Sunday Times, 30 10 1977, p. 16Google Scholar; cf. Vallance, E., Women in the House, p. 15Google Scholar; Brookes, P., Women in Westminster, p. 67Google Scholar. The whole issue was well discussed in the BBC programme cited in fn. 27 above.

30 H.C.deb., 22 Feb. 1928, col. 1646. Annual report of Plymouth Conservative and Unionist Association: 1922, Nancy Astor MSS, 1416/1/1/621.

31 Women M.P.s' debating lines have been counted directly. Equivalent data for men have been prepared by deducting the women's figures from an estimate for total debating lines during the year; this estimate has been reached through multiplying the number of columns for the year by 60 (the number of debating lines per column of debate) and then deducting from that figure 929 lines per 100 columns. This deduction represents the number of Hansard lines that were on average used for purposes other than reporting debate per 100 columns of Hansard in 1919 and 1929 (i.e. space used for division-lists, procedural details, etc.); it is the outcome of averaging 6 samples of 100 columns at the beginning, middle and end of each of these two years; in each year one sample was taken from the start of the debating day, one from the middle and one from the end. There is no reason to think that Hansard space was assigned differently in other years between 1919 and 1945. Ideally all this data would be presented here, but considerations of space prevent it; however, I will be happy to provide supplementary figures to anyone who needs them.

32 Wilkinson, , H C deb, 29 06 1925, col 2123Google ScholarCazalet-Keir, , H C deb, 20 03 1941Google Scholar, col 346, cf Adamson, , H C deb, 25 06 1940, col 388Google Scholar

33 Banbury, , Morning Post, 22 11 1927, p. 4Google Scholar; cf. Woman's Leader, 2 Dec. 1927, p. 345. For women in the division-lobby, see Parliamentary Gazette, no. 83 (Sept. 1930), p. 83; no. 88 (Oct. 1931) P. 79; no. 92 (Dec. 1932), p. 104; no. 97 (Feb. 1934), inside cover; no. 101 (Jan. 1935), p. 91; no. 105 (Dec. 1935), p. 101; no. 108 (Oct. 1936), p. 80; no. 111 (Sept. 1937), p. 6; no. 116 (Jan. 1939), inside cover; no. 121 (May 1940), p. 80.

34 Calculations from Returns for sessions 1929–30 and 1930–1 of all members appointed to serve on standing committees and on select committees (Parl. Papers, 1930–1, xxv).

35 In Ardener, , Women and space, p. 171Google Scholar, H. Callaway distinguishes between physical, social and metaphysical space; in pp. 208 & ff. J. Blair distinguishes only between geographical and psychological space.

36 Eden, G., in Daily News, 16 11 1928, p. 8Google Scholar. For Wilkinson's triumph, ibid. p. 7.

37 Brookes, P., Women at Westminster, p. 126Google Scholar. Vallance, E., Women in the House, p. 37Google Scholar. Collis, M., Diaries, 1949–1969 (1976), p. 107Google Scholar.

38 H.C.deb., 8 Apr. 1935, col. 937. Astor to MacDonald, 19 Oct. 1931 (copy); Astor to Baldwin, 29 Oct. 1931, Nancy Astor MSS, 1416/1/1/1124.

39 For Wintringham at Louth, see Astor to Hilda Matheson, 12 June 1924; Astor to Miss Maxse, 12 June 1924 (copy), Nancy Astor MSS, 1416/1/1/813. For Phillips, , see Daily News, 18 10 1924, p. 3Google Scholar.

40 For Astor's kindnesses to Wilkinson see the two undated letters in envelope dated 28 Jan. 1929, Nancy Astor MSS 1416/1/2/62, and several letters, especially that from Wilkinson dated 11 Apr, at 1416/1/2/63. For kindnesses of 1940 to Wilkinson and Tate, see W. Mitchell to Astor, 6 Apr. 1940; Astor to Mitchell, 19 Apr. 1940 (copy); Wilkinson to Astor, n.d. (in envelope dated 5 Aug. 1940), at 1416/1/2/215.

41 H.C.deb., 28 Nov. 1930, col. 1710.

42 H.C.deb., 20 Mar. 1941, col. 333. For attendance at the debate, see ibid. col. 381.

43 H.C.deb., 3 Aug. 1943, col. 2180.

44 Ibid., col. 2188.

45 Contributions to ‘Should women organise apart from men?’, in Christian Science Monitor, 15 Oct. 1932 (editorial page); cf. Hunter, T., ‘Australian Women’, Australian Quarterly, xxxv (1963) 81Google Scholar.

46 Vallance, E., Women in the House, p. 107Google Scholar, cf. p. 188.

47 Iveagh, , H.C.deb., 28 02 1929, col. 2237Google Scholar; cf. Beckett, col. 2239.

48 Astor, , H.C.deb., 11 03 1935, col. 122Google Scholar. Summerskill, , H.C.deb., 9 12 1941, col. 1448Google Scholar. Hardie, , H.C.deb., 8 12 1942, col. 1493Google Scholar.

49 Shaw, , H.C.deb., 21 02 1935, col. 614Google Scholar. Adamson, , H.C.deb., 8 05 1939, col. 99Google Scholar. Davidson, , H.C.deb., 13 06 1940Google Scholar, col. 1480.

50 Vallance, E., Women in the House, p. 110Google Scholar.

51 Astor, , H.C.deb., 18 08 1921, col. 1727Google Scholar; 21 July 1930, col. 1842. Ward, , H.C.deb., 8 06 1945, col. 1260Google Scholar.

52 Where a speech covers several topics, each section has been assigned to its appropriate category. Where a single speech is equally concerned throughout with two subject-areas, half has been assigned to each.

53 H C deb, 13 May 1942, col 1780, cf 8 Apr 1936, col 2906 and Strachey, R (ed), Ourfreedom and its results (1936), pp 70–1Google Scholar For her critique of the Anomalies Act, see HC. deb., 16 June 1933, col 430, 1 Feb 1934, col 616

54 Hardie, , H.C.deb., 2 12 1941, col. 1079Google Scholar. See also Horsbrugh, , H.C.deb., 13 06 1940, col. 1493Google Scholar; Wilkinson, , H.C.deb., 19 11 1940, col. 1818Google Scholar.

55 The unpublished 65 secret session debates make up only a small proportion of wartime debates; 31 of them concerned only the parliamentary timetable.

56 Atholl, , H.C.deb., 4 06 1924, col. 1372Google Scholar. Astor, , H.C.deb., 13 12 1934, col. 623Google Scholar.

57 For private members' bills, see Brookes, , Women at Westminster, p. 280Google Scholar. For catholics, see Summerskill, E., Woman's world, pp. 52–4Google Scholar; Vernon, B., Wilkinson, p. 98Google Scholar.

58 Stanger, H. Y., H.C.deb., 28 02 1908, col. 221Google Scholar. Astor, , H.C.deb., 1 04 1936, col. 2048Google Scholar.

59 Astor, H.C.deb., 25 07, 1922, col. 402Google Scholar. Stocks, M., Rathbone, pp. 198, 200Google Scholar.

60 H.C.deb., 10 May 1935, col. 1304.

61 Pankhurst, E. S., Suffragette movement, p. 334Google Scholar, cf. p. 608. For 1922, see Woman's Leader, 3 Nov. 1922, pp. 314–17. Jewson was at first in the W.S.P.U., but later developed non-militant connexions.

62 Adamson, , H.C.deb., 20 03 1941Google Scholar, col. 394.

63 Johnston, J., Westminster voices. Studies in parliamentary speech (Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.), p. 198Google Scholar. Anti-Suffrage Review, 1 Sept. 1913, p. 185. For other criticisms of the women M.P.s, see Churchill, R., ‘Women have failed in polities’, Sunday Dispatch, 5 10 1930, p. 10Google Scholar, and Brown, John in Daily Mirror, 4 09 1935, p. 10Google Scholar.

64 Bagehot, W., ‘The advantages and disadvantages of becoming a Member of Parliament’, in his Works (ed. Stevas, St-J.), VI, 59Google Scholar. Atholl, , H.C.deb., 2 05 1924, col. 2013Google Scholar. For six women M.P.s on their representative role, see News Chronicle, 28 June 1932, p. 3; 30 June 1932, p. 7; and Phillipson, , H.C.deb., 29 06 1928, col. 897Google Scholar.

65 Davidson, , H.C.deb., 23 09 1943, col. 510Google Scholar. MrsBaldwin, quoted in Cazalet-Keir, , From the wings, p. 108Google Scholar.

66 Time and Tide, 22 June 1928, p. 613.

67 H.C.deb., 9 Feb. 1927, col. 206. See also my ‘Women's suffrage at Westminster’, in Bentley, M. and Stevenson, J. (eds), High and low politics in modem Britain (Oxford, 1983), p. 119Google Scholar; and Curzon to Astor, 4 Feb. 1926; Curzon to Winifred Mayo, 4 Feb. 1926 (copy), Nancy Astor MSS, 1416/1/1/93.

68 H.C.deb., 9 Nov, 1933, col. 397.

69 H.C.deb., 13 Nov. 1930, col. 1935; cf. her Life is good. An autobiography (1939), p. 173. Shaw, , H.C.deb., 21 02 1935, col. 614Google Scholar. Ward, , H.C.deb., 8 04 1937, col. 466Google Scholar; 20 Mar. 1941, col. 328.

70 Swanwick to Marshall, 10 June 1917, Cumbria County Record Office, Catherine Marshall MSS, box 22.

71 Rathbone, , H.C.deb., 1 04 1936, col. 2033Google Scholar. Atholl, ibid. col. 2058.

72 Manning, , H.C.deb., 17 06 1931, col. 1905Google Scholar. Hardie, , H.C.deb., 21 07 1938, col. 2496Google Scholar. Wright, , H.C.deb., 8 03 1944, col. 2146Google Scholar.

73 H.C.deb., 12 June 1945, col. 1552. See also 20 Mar. 1941, col. 374 (Schuster); 2 July 1940, col. 749 (McGovern); 7 May 1941, col. 838 (Ministry of Information).

74 H.C.deb., 3 Aug. 1943, col. 597; 2 Nov. 1944, col. 931.

75 Bagehot, W., ‘The English constitution’, in Works (ed. Stevas, N. St-J.), V (1974), 295Google Scholar. See also Rathbone, , H.C.deb., 26 02 1936. col. 511Google Scholar.

76 Fabian statistics from Currell, M., Political woman, p. 12Google Scholar. For a good analysis of women's advance into the party structures, see Woman's Leader, 30 Jan. 1925, p. 5; 13 Feb. 1925, pp. 19–20; cf. Ramsden, J., The age of Balfour and Baldwin, 1902–1940 (1978), pp. 250–1Google Scholar.

77 Astor, , H.C.deb., 26 07 1927, col. 1081Google Scholar; for other examples of restiveness with her party see Astor to Hon. Mrs Alfred Lyttelton, 11 Feb. 1924 (copy), Nancy Astor MSS 1416/1/2/35; Astor to Miss Maxse, 15 Mar. 1927 (copy), at 1416/1/1/508. She espouses the ‘middle way’ in H.C.deb., 9 Nov. 1927, col. 267. See also Macmillan to Astor, 9 Feb. 1927, at Nancy Astor MSS 1416/1/2/38, and Macmillan to Astor, 29 Dec. 1931, at 1416/1/2/86.

78 Daily Express, 28 May 1929, p. 1; cf. her performance at Glasgow, , Yorkshire Post, 22 05 1924, p. 11Google Scholar.

79 Bondfield, , Scotsman, 19 07 1929, p. 9Google Scholar; cf. Bondfield, , A life's work (n.d., 1949), p. 277Google Scholar. Morrison, , H.C.deb., 4 11 1930, col. 766Google Scholar.

80 H.C.deb., 29 Mar. 1928, col. 1417; 21 July 1931, col. 136.

81 H.C.deb., 19 July 1927, col. 246.

82 H.C.deb., 1 July 1925, col. 2626. H.C.deb., 8 July 1936, col. 1269.

83 H.C.deb., 12 Nov. 1937, col. 2053; cf. H.C.deb., 20 Mar. 1941, cols 351 ff.

84 H.C.deb., 11 Mar. 1937, col. 1441.

85 H.C.deb., 23 July 1929, col. 1245. See also Daily News, 12 Nov. 1929, p. 10.

86 H.C.deb., 11 Nov. 1929, col. 1577; cf. Lawrence, , H.C.deb., 1 05 1929, col. 1601Google Scholar. For Astor's, later attacks, see H.C.deb., 30 06 1930, col. 1665Google Scholar; 8 July 1930, col. 341; 14 Apr. 1931, col. 77; 24 Sept. 1931, col. 1883.

87 Picton-Turbervill, E., Life is good (1939) p. 258Google Scholar.

88 Ramsden, J., Age of Balfour and Baldwin, p. 327Google Scholar.

89 Astor, , Times, 12 03 1932, p. 9Google Scholar. Preface to Duchess, of Atholl, , Searchlight on Spain (Harmondsworth, 1938), p. xiiGoogle Scholar, cf. Atholl, , H.C.deb., 26 10 1932, col. 1106Google Scholar. For Astor on the National Government, see her speech at Hull, , Yorkshire Herald, 3 03 1932Google Scholar and H.C.deb., 12 May 1932, col. 260.

90 H.C.deb., 28 June 1923, col. 2618; cf. 19 May 1925, col. 302; 22 Jan. 1929, col. 89; 11 Nov. 1937, col. 1972. See also Sykes, C., Nancy, p. 394Google Scholar.

91 Gilbert, M., Winston S. Churchill, V (1976), 686Google Scholar; cf. her comments on foreign policy in Time and Tide, 11 July 1936, p. 992.

92 H.C.deb., 5 Oct. 1938, col. 360. Sykes, C., Nancy, p. 398Google Scholar.

93 Wilkinson, , H.C.deb., 24 08 1939, col, 50Google Scholar. Macmillan, ibid., col. 52.

94 H.C.deb., 22 May 1940, col. 169.

95 See Astor, in Observer, 9 02 1947, p. 7Google Scholar; cf. Brookes, P., Women at Westminster, p. 131Google Scholar; Taylor, A. J. P., English history. 1914–1945 (1965), p. 472, fn. 2Google Scholar.

96 H.C.deb., 7 Aug. 1941 col. 2096; cf. Cazalet-Keir, , H.C.deb., 20 03 1941, cols. 347–8Google Scholar.

97 In Strachey, R., Our freedom, p. 56Google Scholar.

98 This argument is more fully elaborated in my ‘Women' suffrage at Westminster’, pp. 80–122.

81 Ramsden, J., Age of Balfour and Baldwin, p. 225Google Scholar. James, R. R.Memoirs of a Conservative. J. C. C. Davidson's memoirs and papers, 1910–37 (1969), p. 267Google Scholar.

100 Undated MS in Billington-Greig's hand, p. 4. in City of London Polytechnic, Fawcett Library Archive, Box 241 (material on ‘Women for Westminster’).

101 Webb, B., Diaries, 1924–1932, pp. 150, 133Google Scholar. Orwell, G., London letter to Partisan Review, 15 Jan. 1944 in his Collected essays, journalism and letters, II (Penguin edn, Harmondsworth, 1970), 98Google Scholar; cf. Smith, S., My life-work (1903 edn), p. 145Google Scholar.

102 H.C.deb., 20 Aug. 1945, col. 302; cf. 24 Aug. 1939, col. 35, and Stocks, , Rathbone, p. 302Google Scholar. For Astor, see H.C.deb., 9 Apr. 1941, col. 1603; 25 Jan. 1945, col. 1018.

103 Cazalet-Keir, , From the wings, p. 123Google Scholar.

104 Vallance, E., Women in the House, pp. 79–82Google Scholar.

105 Ward, , H.C.deb., 30 06 1939, col. 853Google Scholar. Womersley, , H.C.deb., 11 02 1943, col. 1563Google Scholar.

106 Atholl, in St. Andrews Citizen, 10 10 1931, p. 3Google Scholar. Horsbrugh, in Edinburgh Evening News, 7 08 1934. p. 3Google Scholar.

107 Brookes, P., Women at Westminster, p. 241Google Scholar; cf. Charlot, , in Penniman, H. R. (ed.), Britain at the polls, 1979. A study of the general election (Washington and London, 1981), p. 258Google Scholar.

108 Lloyd-George, , Times, 12 03 1932, p. 9 (addressing a N.U.S.E.C. meeting)Google Scholar.

109 Ward, , H.C.deb., 18 01 1940, col. 316Google Scholar, cf. 24 June 1938, col. 1454. For Wilkinson, , see H.C.deb., 11 11 1936, cols. 999–1000Google Scholar.

110 Mosley, C., H.C.deb., 15 07 1931, col. 674Google Scholar. Extract from Kilmarnock Standard, 6 July 1935, in Nancy Astor MSS 1416/1/7/74. See also Astor to Josiah Wedgwood, 14 Sept. 1934 (copy) at 1416/1/1/1328.

111 Rathbone, , H.C.deb., 13 04 1933, col. 2763Google Scholar. Graves, , H.C.deb., 5 07 1933, col. 396Google Scholar.

112 Times, 2 June 1933, p. 9.

113 Rigg, C., ‘The Failure of a anti-appeaser. The case of the Duchess of Atholl and the West Perth and Kinross by-election of 1938’, History Teaching Review, 10 1984, p. 34Google Scholar.

114 On motives for wartime enfranchisement, see Haldane, , H.L deb., 9 01 1918, cols 427–8Google Scholar, Burnham, col. 456; and, more generally, my Separate spheres, pp. 215–20.