Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-45l2p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T10:02:41.472Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The ‘dark’ side of normative argumentation – The case of counterterrorism policy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 June 2012

REGINA HELLER ,
MARTIN KAHL  and
DANIELA PISOIU
REGINA HELLER*
Affiliation:
Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (IFSH), Germany
MARTIN KAHL*
Affiliation:
Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (IFSH), Germany
DANIELA PISOIU*
Affiliation:
Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (IFSH), Germany
*
*Email: heller@ifsh.de
†kahl@ifsh.de
‡pisoiu@ifsh.de
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

After 9/11 state actors in different parts of the world and to various degrees decided to give security and counterterrorism measures priority over human rights and fundamental freedoms. In order to legitimize their policy choices, governmental actors used normative argumentation to redefine what is ‘appropriate’ to ensure security. We argue that, in the long run, this may lead to a setback dynamic hollowing out established human and civil rights norms. In this article, we develop a theoretical and analytical framework, oriented along the model of the life cycle of norms, in order to trace ‘bad’ norm dynamics in the field of counterterrorism. We conceptualize the norm erosion process, particularly focusing on arguments such as speech acts put forward by governmental norm challengers and their attempts to create new meaning and understanding. We also draw on convergence theory and argue that when a coalition of norm challengers develops, using the same or similar patterns of arguments, established international normative orders protecting human rights and civil liberties might be weakened over time and a more fundamental process of norm erosion may take place.

Keywords

normative argumentationcounterterrorismhuman rightsnorm erosionargumentative convergence
Type
Research Article
Information
Global Constitutionalism , Volume 1 , Issue 2 , July 2012 , pp. 278 - 312
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, Emanuel, and Haas, Peter M.. 1992. “Conclusion: Epistemic Communities, World Order, and the Creation of a Reflective Research Program.” International Organization 46(1):367–90.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2005. Guantánamo and beyond: The continuing pursuit of unchecked executive power. London.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2008. World Report 2008, The State of the World’s Human Rights. London.Google Scholar
Aradau, Claudia. 2004. “Security and the Democratic Scene: Desecuritization and Emancipation.” Journal of International Relations and Development 7(4):388–413.Google Scholar
Aronson, Elliot, and Golden, Burton W.. 1962. “The effect of relevant and irrelevant aspects of communicator credibility on opinion change.” Journal of Personality 30(2):135–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babaeva, Svetlana, and Bovt, Georgi. 2004. September Revolution. Izvestiya 15 September.Google Scholar
Babb, Sarah. 1996. “True American System of Finance: Frame Resonance in the US Labor Movement, 1866 to 1886.” American Sociological Review 61:1033–52.Google Scholar
Badescu, Christina G., and Weiss, Thomas G.. 2010. “Misrepresenting R2P and Advancing Norms: An Alternative Spiral?” International Studies Perspective 11(4):354–74.Google Scholar
Baldwin, David. 1997. “The Concept of Security.” Review of International Studies 23(1):5–26.Google Scholar
Balzacq, Thierry. 2005. “The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context.” European Journal of International Relations 11(2):171–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balzacq, Thierry. 2011. Enquiries into methods: a new framework for securitization analysis. In: Securitization Theory. How security problems emerge and dissolve, edited by Balzacq, Thierry, 31–54. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Benford, Robert D. 1993. “Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement.” Social Force 71(3):692–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benford, Robert D., and Snow, David A.. 2000. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berbrier, Mitch. 1998. “Half the battle: Cultural resonance, framing processes, and ethnic affectations in contemporary white separatist rhetoric.” Social Problems 45(4):431–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigo, Didier, 2000. “When Two Become One: Internal and External Securitisations in Europe.” In: International Relations Theory and the Politics of European Integration: Power, Security and Community, edited by Kelstrup, Morten and Williams, Michael C., 171–204. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bigo, Didier, et al. . 2007. The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and Security: Mid-Term Report on the Results of the CHALLENGE Project; Challenge – Liberty and Security, Research Paper No. 4, February.Google Scholar
Bowden, Mark. 2003. “The Dark Art of Interrogation.” Atlantic Monthly, October, 51–76.Google Scholar
Burgess, Niall, and Spence, David. 2004. “The European Union: new threats and the problem of coherence.” In: Business and Security: Public-Private Sector Relationships in a New Security Environment, edited by Bailes, Alyson and Frommelt, Isabel, 84–101. Stockholm: SIPRI.Google Scholar
Bush, George W., and Nordlinger, Jay. 2003. We Will Prevail: President George W. Bush on War, Terrorism and Freedom. Foreword by Noonan, Peggy; Introduction by Nordlinger, Jay. New York: Continuum.Google Scholar
Buzan, Barry. 1997. “Rethinking Security after the Cold War.” Cooperation and Conflict 32(1):5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buzan, Barry. 2004. The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar
Buzan, Barry. 2006. “Will the ‘global war on terrorism’ be the new Cold War?” International Affairs 82(6):1101–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buzan, Barry, and Wæver, Ole. 1997. “Slippery? Contradictory? Sociologically Untenable? The Copenhagen School Replies.” Review of International Studies 23(2):241–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buzan, Barry, and Wæver, Ole. 2003. Regions and powers: The structure of international security. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Buzan, Barry, et al. . 1998. Security – A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder, CO/London: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Druckmann, James N.. 2007. “Framing Theory”. Annual Review of Political Science 10:103–26.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, Arjun, and Krebs, Ronald R.. 2010. “Talking about terror: Counterterrorist campaigns and the logic of representation.” European Journal of International Relations 16(1):125–50.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2006. Alleged secret detentions and unlawful inter-state transfers involving Council of Europe member states Draft report - Part II (Explanatory memorandum, Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Dick Marty (Rapporteur), AS/Jur (2006) 16 Part II, Strasbourg, 7 June 2006, ajdoc 16 2006 Part II.Google Scholar
Crawford, Neta C. 2002. Argument and Change in World Politics Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crelinsten, Ronald D. 2009. Counterterrorism. Cambridge: Wiley.Google Scholar
d’Anjou, Leo, and Van Male, John. 1998. “Between old and new: social movements and cultural change.” Mobilization 3(2):207–26.Google Scholar
Daase, Christopher. 2003. “Der Anfang vom Ende des nuklearen Tabus.” Zeitschrift für Internationale Beziehungen 10(1):7–41.Google Scholar
Danner, Mark, 2004. Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Torture. New York: New York Review of Books.Google Scholar
Diez, Thomas, et al. . 2006. “The European Union and border conflicts: The transformative power of integration.” International Organization 60(3):563–93.Google Scholar
Dillon, Michael. 2007. “Governing Terror: The State of Emergency of Biopolitical Emergence.” International Political Sociology 1(1):7–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolowitz, David and Marsh, David. 2000. “Learning from Abroad: the Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making.” Governance 13(1):5–23.Google Scholar
Donati, Paolo R. 2001. “Die Rahmenanalyse politischer Diskurse.” In: Handbuch sozialwissenschaftliche Diskursanalyse, Vol. 1: Theorien und Methoden, edited by Keller, R., et al. ., 145–76. Opladen: Leske and Budrich.Google Scholar
Elbe, Stefan. 2006. “Should HIV/AIDS Be Securitized? The Ethical Dilemmas of Linking HIV/AIDS and Security.” International Studies Quarterly 50(1):119–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, Johan. 1999. “Observers or Advocates? On the Political Role of Security Analysts.” Cooperation and Conflict 34(3):311–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, Johan and Erik, Noreen. 2002. Setting the Agenda of Threats: An Explanatory Model. Uppsala Peace Research Paper No. 6.Google Scholar
Erwin, Lorna. 1993. “Neoconservatism and the Canadian pro-family movement.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 30(3):401–20.Google Scholar
European Commission, 2002. Standard Eurobarometer 57. Public Opinion in the European Union. First Results, Brussels.Google Scholar
Evangelista, Matthew. 2008. Law, ethics and the war on terror. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha. 1996. National Interests in International Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. “International Norms Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52(4):887–917.Google Scholar
Fiske, Susan T., and Taylor, Shelley E.. 1991. Social Cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Fordham, Benjamin O., and Asal, Victor. 2007. “Billiard Balls or Snowflakes? Major Power Prestige and the International Diffusion of Institutions and Practices.” International Studies Quarterly 51(1):31–52.Google Scholar
Futrell, Robert. 2003. “Framing Processes, Cognitive Liberation, and NIMBY Protest in the U.S. Chemical-Weapons Disposal Conflict.” Social Inquiry 73(3):359–86.Google Scholar
Gerhards, Juergen, and Rucht, Dieter. 1992. “Mesomobilization: Organizing and Framing in Two Protest Campaigns in West Germany.” The American Journal of Sociology 98(3):555–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New Yorket al.: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Golts, Alexander. 2004. “Military Reform in Russia and the Global War against Terrorism.” Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17(1):29–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, Karen J. 2008. The Enemy Combatant Papers: American Justice, the Courts, and the War on Terror. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, Karen J., and Dratel, Joshua L.. 2005. The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Guiraudon, Virginie. 2003. “The Constitution of a European Immigration Policy Domain: A Political Sociology Approach.” Journal of European Public Policy 10(2):263–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guzzini, Stefano and Jung, Dietrich. 2004. Contemporary Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace Research. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Haas, Peter M. 1992, “Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy-Coordination.” International Organization 46(1):1–36.Google Scholar
Hansen, Lene, and Nissenbaum, Helen. 2009. “Digital Disaster, Cyber Security, and the Copenhagen School.” International Studies Quarterly 53(4):1155–75.Google Scholar
Hass, Glen R. 1991. “Effects of source characteristics on cognitive responses and persuasion.” In: Cognitive Responses in Persuasion, edited by Petty, R. E., 141–72. Hillsdale: Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Heichel, Stephan, et al. . 2005. “Is there convergence in convergence research? An overview of empirical studies on policy convergence.” Journal of European Public Policy 12(5):817–40.Google Scholar
Hersh, Seymour M. 2004. Chain of Command: The Road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Hill, Michael. 1997. The Policy Process in the Modern State, 3rd edn. London: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf.Google Scholar
Hoge, Warren. 2006. “Investigators for UN Urge U.S. to Close Guantanamo.” New York Times, 17 February.Google Scholar
Holm, Ulla. 2004. “Algeria: Securitization of State/Regime, Nation and Islam.” In: Contemporary Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace Research, edited by Guzzini, Stefano and Jung, Dietrich, 217–28. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Holzinger, Katharina. 2004. “Bargaining Through Arguing: An Empirical Analysis Based on Speech Act Theory.” Political Communication 21(2):195–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holzinger, Katharina. 2006. “Methodological Pitfalls of Convergence Analysis.” European Union Politics 7(2):271–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hovland, Carl I., and Weiss, Walter. 1951. The Influence of Source Credibility on Communication Effectiveness. The Public Opinion Quarterly 15(4):635–50.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2005. Leadership Failure Firsthand Accounts of Torture of Iraqi Detainees by the U.S. Army’s 82nd Airborne Division. New York.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2006. World Report 2006. New York.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2008. World Report 2008. New York.Google Scholar
Huysmans, Jef. 1998, “Revisiting Copenhagen: Or, On the Creative Development of a Security Studies Agenda in Europe.” European Journal of International Relations 4(4):479–506.Google Scholar
Huysmans, Jef. 2000. “The European Union and the Securitization of Migration.” Journal of Common Market Studies 38(5):751–77.Google Scholar
Jackson, Richard. 2007a. “An analysis of EU counterterrorism discourse post-September 11. Cambridge Review of International Affairs” 20(2):233–47.Google Scholar
Jackson, Richard. 2007b. “Language, policy and the construction of a torture culture in the war on terrorism.” Review of International Studies 33(3):353–71.Google Scholar
Jaffer, Jameel, and Singh, Amrit. 2009. Administration of torture: a documentary record from Washington to Abu Ghraib and beyond. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Jarvis, Lee. 2009. Times of Terror: Discourse, Temporality and the War on Terror. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Jehl, Douglas, 2005. “Report Warned on CIA’s Tactics in Interrogation.” New York Times, 9 November.Google Scholar
Jenkins, Brian. 1975. “International terrorism: A new mode of conflict.” In: International Terrorism and World Security, edited by Carlton, David and Schaerf, Carlo, 13–49. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Johnson, Victoria L. 1997. “Operation Rescue, Vocabularies of Motive, and Tactical Action: A Study of Movement Framing in the Practice of Quasi-Nonviolence.” In: Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Chance, vol. 20 edited by Kriesberg, Louis, et al. , 103–50. Greenwich, CT: Jay Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, David, and Risen, James. 2004. “The Reach of War: The Interrogations.” New York Times, 27 June.Google Scholar
Johnston, Hank. 2008. “Ritual, strategy, and deep culture in the Chechen national movement,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1(3):321–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Trevor, and Newburn, Tim. 2002. “Learning from Uncle Sam? Exploring U.S. Influences on British Crime Control Policy.” Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions 15(1):97–119.Google Scholar
Karyotis, Georgios. 2007. “Securitization of Greek Terrorism and Arrest of the Revolutionary Organization November 17.”Cooperation and Conflict 42(3):271–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keck, Margaret, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kelstrup, Morten. 2004. “Globalisation and societal insecurity: the securitisation of terrorism and competing strategies for global governance.” In: Contemporary Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace Research, edited by Guzzini, Stefano and Jung, Dietrich, 106–16. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kingdon, John W. 1994. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Klandermans, Bert. 1992. “The Social Construction of Protest and Multiorganizational Fields.” In: Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by Morris, Aldon and McClurg Mueller, Carol, 77–103. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Knill, Christoph. 2005. “Introduction: Cross-national policy convergence: concepts, approaches and explanatory factors.” Journal of European Public Policy 12(5):764–74.Google Scholar
Knudsen, Olav F. 2001. “Post-Copenhagen Security Studies: Desecuritizung Securitization.” Security Dialogue 32(3):355–68.Google Scholar
Kostakopoulou, Dora. 2000. “The ‘Protective’ Union: Change and Continuity in Migration Law and Policy in Post-Amsterdam Europe.” Journal of Common Market Studies 38(3):497–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kostyukov, Anatoli, 2004. “Restauration. The President announced his plans for state reform.” Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 14 September.Google Scholar
Krebs, Ronald R. 2006. “Fighting for Rights: Military Service and the Politics of Citizenship.” Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Krebs, Ronald R., and Jackson, Patrick T.. 2007. “Twisting Tongues and Twisting Arms: The Power of Political Rhetoric.” European Journal of International Relations 13(1):35–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubal, Timothy J. 1998. “The Presentation of Political Self: Cultural Resonance and the Construction of Collective Action Frames.” The Sociological Quarterly 39(4):539–54.Google Scholar
Legro, Jeffrey W. 2000. “The Transformation of Policy Ideas.” American Journal of Political Science 44(33):419–32.Google Scholar
Lelyveld, Joseph. 2005. “Interrogating Ourselves.” New York Times (Sunday Magazine), 12 June.Google Scholar
Leonard, Sarah, and Kaunert, Christian. 2011. “Reconceptualizing the Audience in Securitization Theory.” In: Securitization Theory. How Security Problems Emerge and Dissolve, edited by Balzacq, Thierry, 57–76. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lewis, Anthony. 2004. “Making Torture Legal.” New York Review of Books, 15 July.Google Scholar
Lewis, Neil, and Schmitt, Eric. 2005. “Inquiry Finds Abuses at Guantanamo Bay.” New York Times, 1 May.Google Scholar
Liese, Andrea. 2006. Staaten am Pranger. Zur Wirkung internationaler Regime auf innerstaatliche Menschenrechtspolitik. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.Google Scholar
Liese, Andrea. 2009. “Exceptional necessity. How liberal democracies contest the prohibition of torture and ill-treatment when countering terrorism.” Journal of International Law and International Relations 5(1):17–47.Google Scholar
March, James J., and Olsen, Johan P.. 1998. “The Institutional Dynamics of International Political Orders.” International Organization 52(4):943–70.Google Scholar
Mayer, Jane. 2005a. “The Experiment.” New Yorker online, 11 and 18 July: http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050711fa_fact4.Google Scholar
Mayer, Jane. 2005b. “Outsourcing torture: the secret history of America’s ‘extraordinary rendition’ program.” New Yorker online, 14 February: http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050214fa_fact6.Google Scholar
McCaffrey, Dawn, and Keys, Jennifer. 2000. “Competitive Frame Processes in the Abortion Debate – Polarisation – Vilification, Frame Saving and Frame Debunking.” Sociological Quarterly 41(1):41–6.Google Scholar
McDonald, Matt. 2007. “Justifying Intervention: The Coalition of the Willing and the ‘War on Terror’.” Paper presented at BISA Conference, Cambridge, December.Google Scholar
McDonald, Matt. 2008. “Securitization and the Construction of Security.” European Journal of International Relations 14(4):563–87.Google Scholar
McGuire, William J. 1985. “Attitudes and Attitude Change.” In: Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by Lindzey, Gardner and Aronson, Elliot, 233–346. Hillsdale, NY: Random House.Google Scholar
McKeown, Ryder. 2009. “Norm Regress: US Revisionism and the Slow Death of the Torture Norm.” International Relations 23(1):5–25.Google Scholar
McSweeney, Bill. 1996. “Identity and Security: Buzan and the Copenhagen School.” Review of International Studies 22(1):81–93.Google Scholar
Meyer, Christoph O. 2009. “International terrorism as a force of homogenization? A constructivist approach to understanding cross-national threat perceptions and responses.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 22(4):647–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, John W., et al. . 1997. “World Society and the Nation-State.” American Journal of Sociology 103(1):144–81.Google Scholar
Michaelsen, Christopher. 2006. “Balancing Civil Liberties against National Security.” University of New South Wales Law Journal 29(2):1–21.Google Scholar
Nadelmann, Ethan A. 1990. “Global prohibition regimes: the evolution of norms in international society.” International Organization, 44(4):479–526.Google Scholar
Neal, Andrew W. 2009. “Securitization and Risk at the EU Border: The Origins of FRONTEX.” Journal of Common Market Studies 47(2):333–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noonan, Rita K. 1995. “Women against the state: political opportunities and collective action frames in Chile’s transition to democracy.” Sociological Forum 10(1):81–111.Google Scholar
Nowak, Manfred. 2006. “Das System Guantánamo.” Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte B 36:23–30.Google Scholar
Oberschall, Anthony. 1989. “Culture change and social movements.” Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Francisco, CA, 9–13 August.Google Scholar
Omelicheva, Mariya Y. 2007. “Russia’s Counterterrorism Policy: Variations on an Imperial Theme.” Paper for presentation at the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, San Francisco, CA, 26–29 March.Google Scholar
OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, 2005. Report on Guantanamo, prepared by Mrs. Anne-Marie Lizin, Rapporteur of the committee Human Dimension of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly to the President of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Mr. Alcee Hastings. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
OSCE Parliamentary Assembly 2007. Report on Guantanamo Bay, by Mrs. Anne-Marie Lizin, Special Representative of the President of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Mr. Göran Lennmarker. Copenhagen, 8 July.Google Scholar
Panfilov, Oleg. 2005. Putin and the Press: The Revival of Soviet-style Propaganda. London: The Foreign Policy Centre.Google Scholar
Panke, Diana, and Petersohn, Ulrich. 2011. “Why international norms disappear sometimes, European Journal of International Relations,” online first, June 14, 2011, available athttp://ejt.sagepub.com/content/early/2011/06/14/1354066111407690.Google Scholar
Park, Kristin. 1998. “The religious construction of sanctuary provision in two congregations. Sociological Spectrum” 18(4):393–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paust, Jordan J. 2007. Beyond the law: the Bush administration’s unlawful responses in the ‘war’ on terror. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Payne, Rodger A. 2001. “Persuasion, Frames and Norm Construction.” European Journal of International Relations 7(1):37–61.Google Scholar
Plater-Zyberk, Henry. 2005. Russia’s Special Forces. Conflict Studies Research Centre, Russian Series 05/50, September available athttp://studies.agentura.ru/centres/csrc/rsp.pdf.Google Scholar
Poleine, Martin, et al. . 2009. Counterterrorism Law and Practice – An International Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Powell, Walter W., and DiMaggio, Paul J.. 1991. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Riskin, Andrei. 2004. “Russia prepares for the Great War.” Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 14 September.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas. 1999. “Identitäten und Kommunikationsprozesse in der internationalen Politik – Sozialkonstruktivistische Perspektiven zum Wandel in der Außenpolitik.” In: Außenpolitischer Wandel in theoretischer und vergleichender Perspektive – die USA und die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, edited by Medick-Krakau, Monika, 33–57. Baden-Baden: Nomos.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas. 2000. ‘“Let’s Argue!’: Communicative Action in World Politics.” International Organization 54(1):1–39.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas. 2003. “Konstruktivismus, Rationalismus und Theorien Internationaler Beziehungen – warum empirisch nichts so heiß gegessen wird, wie es theoretisch gekocht wurde.” In: Die neuen Internationalen Beziehungen. Forschungsstand und Perspektiven in Deutschland, edited by Hellmann, Gunther, 99–132. Baden-Baden: Nomos.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, et al. . 1999. The Power of Human Rights. International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms Into Domestic Practice: Introduction.” In: The Power of Human Rights. International Norms and Domestic Change, edited by Risse, Thomas, et al. ., 1–38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roe, Paul. 2004. “Securitization and minority rights: Conditions of desecuritization.” Security Dialogue 35(3):279–94.Google Scholar
Rosert, Elvira, and Schirmbeck, Sonja. 2007. “Zur Erosion internationaler Normen.” Zeitschrift für internationale Beziehungen 14(2):253–87.Google Scholar
Roskos-Ewoldsen, David R., et al. . 2002. “The Influence of Accessibility of Source Likeability on Persuasion.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38(2):137–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roth, Kenneth, 2006. “Justifying Torture.” In: Torture: Does it Make Us Safer? Is It Ever OK? A Human Rights Perspective, edited by Roth, Kenneth, et al. ., 184–201. New Yorket al.: New Press and Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Ruggie, John G. 1998. Constructing the World Polity. Essays on International Institutionalization. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Sabatier, Paul, and Jenkins-Smith, Hank C.. 1993. Policy change and learning: an advocacy coalition approach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Salter, Mark. 2011. “When securitization fails: the hard case of counterterrorism programs.” In: Securitization Theory. How security problems emerge and dissolve, edited by Balzacq, Thierry, 116–32. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Sandholtz, Wayne. 2008. “Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder.” European Journal of International Relations 14(1):101–31.Google Scholar
Sasse, Gwendolyn. 2005. “Securitization or Securing Rights? Exploring the Conceptual Foundations of Policies towards Minorities and Migrants in Europe.” Journal of Common Market Studies 43(4):673–93.Google Scholar
Schmitz, Hans Peter, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 2002. “International Human Rights”. In: Handbook of International Relations, edited by Carlsnaes, Walter, et al. ., 517–37. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Shumilov, A. J., and Safonov, I. I.. 2005. “Typical operational-investigational versions about cases of terrorist acts.” In: Terrorism: Legal aspects of Counteraction, edited by Trunov, I. L., 228–35. Moscow: Eksmo.Google Scholar
Siegert, Jens. 2003. “Angriff auf die Pressefreiheit.” In: Der Krieg im Schatten. Russland und Tschetschenien, edited by Hassel, Florian, 153–72. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.Google Scholar
Slater, Jerome. 2006. “Tragic Choices in the War on Terrorism: Should We Try to Regulate and Control Torture?” Political Science Quarterly 121(1):191–215.Google Scholar
Slater, Michael D., and Rouner, Donna. 1996. “How Message Evaluation and Source Attributes May Influence Credibility Assessment and Belief Change.” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 73(4):974–91.Google Scholar
Snow, David A., and Benford, Robert D.. 1988. “Ideology, frame resonance, and participant mobilization.” International Social Movement Research 1(1):197–218.Google Scholar
Soldatov, Andrei, and Borogan, Irina. 2005. Terrorism prevention in Russia: one year after Beslan, Report of Agentura.Ru Studies and Research Centre, September 2005.Google Scholar
Stritzel, Holger. 2007. “Towards a Theory of Securitization: Copenhagen and Beyond.” European Journal of International Relations 13(3):357–83.Google Scholar
Stykow, Petra. 2004. “Russland: Wandel der Sicherheitspolitik als Funktion der Innen- und Außenpolitik.” In: Europäisierung der inneren Sicherheit. Eine vergleichende Untersuchung am Beispiel von organisierter Kriminalität und Terrorismus, edited by Glaeßner, Gert-Joachim and Lorenz, Astrid, 225–44. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.Google Scholar
Sunstein, Cass. 1997. Free Markets and Social Justice. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Vanderford, Marsha L. 1989. “Vilification and Social Movements: A Case Study of Pro-Life and Pro-Choice Rhetoric.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 75(2):166–72.Google Scholar
Vultee, Fred. 2011. “Securitization as a media frame: what happens when the media ‘speak security’.” In: Securitization Theory. How security problems emerge and dissolve, edited by Balzacq, Thierry, 77–93. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Vuori, Juha A. 2008. “Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitization to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders.” European Journal of International Relations 14(1):65–99.Google Scholar
Wade, Marianne, and Maljevic, Almir. 2010. A war on terror? The European stance on a threat, changing laws and human rights implications. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Wæver, Ole, 1989. “Security, the Speech Act: Analyzing the Politics of a Word.” Working Paper 19, Copenhagen: Center for Peace and Conflict Research.Google Scholar
Wæver, Ole 1995. “Securitization and Desecuritization.” In: On Security, edited by Lipshutz, Ronnie, 46–86. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Wæver, Ole 1999. “Insecurity, Security and Asecurity in the West European non-War Community.” In: Security Communities, edited by Adler, Emanuel and Barnett, Michael N., 69–118. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wæver, Ole 2000. “The EU as a Security Actor: Reflections from a Pessimistic Constructivist on Post Sovereign Security Orders.” In: International Relations Theory and the Politics of European Integration, edited by Kelstrup, Morten and Williams, Michael C, 250–94. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2004. “Contested Compliance: Interventions on the Normative Structure of World Politics.” European Journal of International Relations 10(2):189–234.Google Scholar
Williams, Michael C. 2003. “Words, Images, Enemies: Securitization and International Politics.” International Studies Quarterly 47(4):511–31.Google Scholar
Williams, Michael C. 2011. “The continuing evolution of securitization theory.” In: Securitization Theory. How security problems emerge and dissolve, edited by Balzacq, Thierry, 212–22. London/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wolfe, Wojtek Mackiewicz. 2008. Winning the war of words: selling the war on terror from Afghanistan to Iraq. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Zuo, Jiping, and Benford, Robert D.. 1995. “Mobilization Processes and the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement.” The Sociological Quarterly 36(1):131–56.Google Scholar