¹ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Rise of the State as a Process of Secularisation [1967], in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

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³ See generally Caldwell, Christopher, Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: Immigration, Islam and the West (2010); Douglas Murray, The Strange Death of Europe (2017).Google Scholar

⁴ See generally Khan, Sara, The Battle for British Islam: Reclaiming Muslim Identity from Extremism (2016).Google Scholar

⁵ Terrorism is defined in Section 1 of the Terrorism Act 2000 as:Google Scholar

Terrorism Act 2000, c. 11, § 1 (UK).Google Scholar

⁶ The other strands are labeled “Pursue,” “Protect,” and “Prepare.” For further background, see the helpful Briefing Paper by Joanna Dawson & Samantha Godec, Counter-Extremism Policy: An Overview (House of Commons Library, no. 7238, Feb. 5, 2016).Google Scholar

⁷ HM Government, Report to the Home Secretary of Independent Oversight of Prevent Review and Strategy, 2011 (UK).Google Scholar

⁸ Secretary of State for the Home Department, Prevent Strategy, 2011, Cm. 8092, at 107 (UK).Google Scholar

⁹ Secretary of State for the Home Department, CONTEST: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism, 2011, Cm. 8123, ¶ 5.3 (UK).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Id. at ¶ 5.71.Google Scholar

¹¹ Jessie Blackbourn & Clive Walker, Interdiction and Indoctrination: The Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015, 79(5) Mod. L. Rev. 840–70 (2016).Google Scholar

¹² Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015, c. 6, § 31 (UK). One letter to The Guardian on Feb. 3, 2015 was signed by over 500 senior academic staff. The intemperate debate which followed is helpfully clarified by Steven Greer & Lindsey Bell, Counter-Terrorist Law in British Universities: A Review of the “Prevent” Debate, Pub. L. 84–105 (2018).Google Scholar

¹³ Home Office, Revised Prevent Duty Guidance: For England and Wales, 2015, ¶ 8 (UK).Google Scholar

¹⁴ See, e.g., Home Office, Prevent Duty Guidance: For Higher Education Institutions in England and Wales, 2015, at 4 (UK).Google Scholar

¹⁵ See R (Butt) v. Sec'y of State for the Home Dep't [2017] EWHC (Admin) 1930 [61].Google Scholar

¹⁶ In Butt, Ouseley discussed this problem at some length, concluding that the Guidance was not unlawful because the Minister had had due regard to the law in formulating it, but suggesting that it may be appropriate for institutions to depart from it. See id. at paras. 41–68.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Department for Education, Report into Allegations Concerning Birmingham Schools Arising from the ‘Trojan Horse‘ Letter, 2014, HC 576 (UK).Google Scholar

¹⁸ The Association of Muslim Schools lists 156 in 2014, 13 of which are state-funded. For a recent discussion, see Bowen, John R., On British Islam 199–205 (2016).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Education Act 2002, c. 32, § 78 (UK).Google Scholar

²⁰ The Education (School Teachers' Appraisal) (England) Regulations 2012 SI 2012/115 reg. 6; The Teachers' Disciplinary (England) Regulations 2012 SI 2012/560 reg. 4.Google Scholar

²¹ Department for Education, Teachers' Standards, 2011 (Eng.).Google Scholar

²² Department for Education, Promoting Fundamental British Values as Part of SMSC in Schools, 2014 (Eng.).Google Scholar

²³ R v. Secretary of State for Education and Science ex parte Talmud Torah Machzikei Hadass School Trust, The Times, Apr. 12, 1985.Google Scholar

²⁴ Education Act 2002, § 157; Education (Independent School Standards) (England) Regulations 2003 SI 2003/1910 sch. 1 ¶ 2.Google Scholar

²⁵ Education (Independent School Standards) (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2012 SI 2012/2374 sch. 1(2) ¶ 5.Google Scholar

²⁶ Education (Independent School Standards) Regulations 2014 SI 2014/3283 sch. 1 ¶ 5.Google Scholar

²⁷ Independent Educational Provision in England (Prohibition on Participation in Management) Regulations 2014 SI 2014/1977; School and Early Years Finance (England) Regulations 2014 SI 2014/3352.Google Scholar

²⁸ Charity Commission, Protecting Charities from Abuse for Extremist Purposes, 2013 (UK).Google Scholar

²⁹ Id. at 7.Google Scholar

³⁰ Id.Google Scholar

³¹ Charity Commission, Strategy for Dealing With Issues in Charities Involving the Safeguarding of Vulnerable People, 2013 (UK).Google Scholar

³² Department for Education, Working Together to Safeguard Children, 2015, ¶ 43 (UK).Google Scholar

³³ Charities Act 2011, c. 25, § 181(7) Condition F (UK).Google Scholar

³⁴ Charity Commission, Power to Disqualify From Acting as a Trustee, 2016, at 4 (UK). The Charity Law Association has criticized the policy for its lack of clarity and predictability.Google Scholar

³⁵ Home Department, Counter-Extremism Strategy, 2015, Cm. 9148 (UK).Google Scholar

³⁶ Id. at ¶ 39.Google Scholar

³⁷ Id. at ¶ 41.Google Scholar

³⁸ Id. at ¶ 84.Google Scholar

³⁹ Id. at ¶ 48; Home Department (Counter-Extremism Unit), The Independent Review into the Application of Sharia Law in England and Wales, 2018, Cm. 9560 (UK). The Review was chaired by Professor Mona Siddiqui.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Queen's Speech: Background Briefing Notes (May 18, 2016), at 49.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Counter-Extremism Strategy, supra note 35, at ¶ 74.Google Scholar

⁴² Department for Education, Out-of-School Education Settings: Call for Evidence, 2015 (UK).Google Scholar

⁴³ Welsh Government Consultation Document, Out-of-School Education Settings, 2016 (Wales).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Out-of-School Education Settings: Call for Evidence, supra note 42, at ¶ 3.19.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Id. at ¶ 3.7.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Id. at ¶ 2.5.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Lord Nash reported that over 18,000 had been received. House of Lords, vol. 777, col. 1953 (Jan. 11, 2017), https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2017-01-11/debates/DB30E95B-8165-4766-9944-73B6776936C6/ChildrenSafeguarding.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Counter-Extremism Strategy, supra note 35, at ¶¶ 111–15.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ On April 26, 2017, there was a telling exchange in the House of Lords on this problem. Lord Morris of Aberavon (Labour) asked, “My Lords, can extremism ever really be legally defined?” Baroness Williams of Trafford (Minister of State, Home Department) responded, “It will be legally defined when it is defined in law.” House of Lords, vol. 782, col. 1385 (Apr. 26, 2017), https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2017-04-26/debates/AF6812B2-EF43-4CDD-866D-7810C8840151/TerrorismDomesticExtremism.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Mark Townsend, Theresa May's Counter-Terrorism Bill Close to ‘Sinking Without Trace’, The Guardian (Jan. 28, 2017), https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/29/theresa-may-counter-terrorism-bill-sinking-without-trace-extremism-british-values.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Home Office, Single Departmental Plan 2015 to 2020, 2016 (UK).Google Scholar

⁵² Id. at ¶ 1.1.Google Scholar

⁵³ R (Butt) v. Sec'y of State for the Home Dep't [2017] EWHC (Admin) 1930 (Further actions, for defamation, are ongoing.).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Forward Together: The Conservative and Unionist Party Manifesto 2017, 55 (May 17, 2017).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Department for Communities and Local Government, The Casey Review, 2016 (UK).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Id. at ¶¶ 9.16–9.27.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Id. at ¶ 1.13.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Id. at ¶ 8.23.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Id. at ¶ 8.34.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Department for Education, Working Together to Safeguard Children: A Guide to Inter-Agency Working to Safeguard and Promote the Welfare of Children, 2018, at 25 (UK).Google Scholar

⁶¹ Id. at 110.Google Scholar

⁶² Prime Minister's Speech to the Republican Party Conference, (Jan. 26, 2017), https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/prime-ministers-speech-to-the-republican-party-conference-2017.Google Scholar

⁶³ For a brief background, see Künkler, Mirjam & Stein, Tine, Böckenförde's Political Theory of the State, in Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, 1 Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings 47–49 (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Bundesverfassungsgericht [BVerfG] [Federal Constitutional Court] May 22, 1975, 39 Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts [BVerfGE] 334.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ I am grateful to Tine Stein for making this point.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The State as an Ethical State, in 1 Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings 96 (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Id. at 97.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Id. at 100.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Böckenförde had ghost-written Chancellor Helmut Schmidt's 1976 speech, Ethos and Law in State and Society. See Künkler & Stein, supra note 63, at 39.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Repressed State of Emergency [1978], in 1 Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017). This was his inaugural lecture at the University of Freiburg.Google Scholar

⁷¹ For further details, see Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang, Ausnahmerecht und demokratischer Rechtsstaat, in Die Freiheit Des Anderen: Festschrift Für Martin Hirsch 259–72 (Hans Jochen Vogel, Helmut Simon, & Adalbert Podlech eds., Nomos Publishing Company 1981).Google Scholar

⁷² See Gosewinkel, Dieter, The Biographical Interview with Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde [2011], in 1 Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings 386 (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017).Google Scholar

⁷³ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Verhaltensgewähr oder Gesinnungstreue, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Oct. 25, 1978, at 10–11 (reproduced in id., Staat, Verfassung, Demokratie (1991)).Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Id. Google Scholar

⁷⁵ See the Introduction to Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde et al., Extremisten und öffentlicher Dienst 15 (1981).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Fundamental Rights: Theory and Interpretation [1974], in Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Id. at 278.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Bundesverfassungsgericht [BVerfGE] [Federal Constitutional Court], Dec. 19, 2000, 102 Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts [BVerfGE] 370.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Id. at para. 94.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Id. at para. 95.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Bundesverfassungsgericht, Jan. 17, 2017, 144 BVerfGE 20.Google Scholar

⁸² The Equality and Human Rights Commission Guidance, Delivering the Prevent Duty in a Proportionate and Fair Way: A Guide for Higher Education Providers in England on how to use Equality and Human Rights Law in the Context of Prevent, 2017 (casting its advice in terms of “assessing impact on equality, human rights and good relations.”) (Eng.).Google Scholar

⁸³ Vogt v. Germany (A/323), 21 Eur. Ct. H.R. 205 (1995); Zdanoka v. Latvia, App. No. 58278/00, Eur. Ct. H.R. paras. 79–80 (Jun. 17, 2004: Chamber); and para. 100 (Mar. 16, 2006: Grand Chamber).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Paksas v. Lithuania., App. No. 34932/04, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 87 (Jan. 6, 2011: Grand Chamber).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Although by a curious logic, in Article 11 cases, the Court considers Article 17 after Article 11(2) when it invariably adds nothing to the analysis.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ But not all: Lawless v. Ireland (no. 3), App. No. 332/57 (A/3), Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 6 (Jul. 1, 1961). For example, in Saybatalov v. Russia., App. No. 26377/06, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Mar. 14, 2013), the Court found a violation of Article 7 in respect of the banning of Hizb-ut-Tahrir in Russia, while also holding the complaints based on Articles 9 to 11 inadmissible on account of Article 17.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ See, e.g., the looser formulation in Witzsch v. Germany, App. No. 7485/03, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 3 (Dec. 13, 2005), although on the facts holocaust denial clearly falls within Article 17.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Perinçek v. Switzerland., App. No. 27510/08, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 52 (Dec. 17, 2013: Chamber), paras. 113–15 (Oct. 15, 2015: Grand Chamber).Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Vajnai v. Hungary, App. No. 33629/06, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 25 (Jul. 8, 2008); Vona v. Hungary, App. No. 35943/10, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 37 (Jul. 9, 2013).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ United Communist Party of Turkey v. Turkey, App. No. 19392/92, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Jan. 20, 1998); see also Vajnai, App. No. 33629/06.Google Scholar

⁹¹ This is implicit in Vona v. Hungary and Özdep v. Turkey, App. No. 23995/94, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Dec. 8, 1999).Google Scholar

⁹² For a recent statement, see Delfi AS v. Estonia, App. No. 64569/09, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 131 (Jun. 16, 2015).Google Scholar

⁹³ Annen v. Germany, App. No. 3690/10, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 53 (Nov. 26, 2015).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Delfi AS v. Estonia, App. No. 64569/09, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 131 (Jun. 16, 2015); Id. at para. 67; Magyar Tartalomszolgaltatok Egyesulete v. Hungary, App. No. 22947/13, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 64 (Feb. 2, 2016).Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Vona v. Hungary, App. No. 35943/10, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 36 (2013).Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Refah Partisi v. Turkey, App. No. 41340/98, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 98 (Feb. 13, 2003).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Biblical Centre of the Chuvash Republic v. Russia., App. No. 33203/08, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Jun. 12, 2014).Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Moscow Branch of the Salvation Army v. Russia, App. No. 72881/01, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Oct. 6, 2006); Kimlya v. Russia, App. No. 76836/01, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Oct. 1, 2009).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Magyar Kereszteny Mennonita Ehyhaz v. Hungary, App. No. 70945/11, Eur. Ct. H.R. para. 76 (Apr. 8, 2014).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Guidelines for Review of Legislation Pertaining to Religion or Belief, (June 18–19, 2004).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Annual Report (2014), http://www.osce.org/odihr/139046?download=true.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Asma Jahangir (Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief), Mission to Turkmenistan, ¶ 30, A/HRC/10/8/Add. 4 (Jan. 12, 2009).Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Heiner Bielefeldt (Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief), Mission to Kazakhstan, ¶ 26, A/HRC/28/66/Add. 1.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Malakhovsky and Pikul v. Belarus, Communication No. 1207/2003, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/84/D/1207/2003 (2005).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ David Anderson Q.C., The Terrorism Acts in 2014 ¶ 9.29 (2015).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Joshua Rozenberg, Terrorism, Extremism and the Law, BBC Radio 4 Law in Action (Nov. 3, 2016) https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b080t882.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Joint Committee on Human Rights, Counter-Extremism, 2016–17, HL Paper 39, HC 105 (UK).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Vikram Dodd, Anjem Choudary jailed for five-and-a-half years for urging support of Isis, The Guardian (Sept. 6, 2016), https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/06/anjem-choudary-jailed-for-five-years-and-six-months-for-urging-support-of-isis.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Julian Rivers, The law of Organized Religions: Between Establishment and Secularism (2010), at 20–31.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Places of Worship Registration Act 1855, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 81 (Eng).Google Scholar

¹¹¹ See, famously, Thornton v. Howe [1862], 54 ER, 1042, 31 Beav 14.Google Scholar

¹¹² Bowman v. Secular Soc'y [1917] AC 406; Bourne v. Keane [1919] AC 815.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁴ For this reason, fulfilling the public-sector duty to “promote equality” proves remarkably complicated and risky. See Rivers, Julian, Promoting Religious Equality, 1 Oxford J. of L. & Religion 386–401 (2012).Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Ronald Dworkin, Justice for Hedgehogs 213 (2011).Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ This seems to be the intention of the Education (Independent School Standards) Regulations 2003, SI 2003/1910, sch. 1, ¶ 2, as amended, which require children to have “particular regard to the protected characteristics set out in the Equality Act 2010” when learning to respect others.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ I discuss a range of possible justifications for freedom of religion in Julian Rivers, Justifying Freedom of Religion: Does ‘Dignity’ Help?, in Understanding Human Dignity 405 (Christopher McCrudden ed., 2013).Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ For this distinction, see generally John Gray, Two Faces of Liberalism (2000).Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Compare the Teachers' Standards, supra note 21, and the Independent School Standards Regulations, supra note 25, with the Counter-Extremism Strategy, supra note 35.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ See the answer of Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon to this written question (HL7297) on April 7, 2016, http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-question/Lords/2016-03-22/HL7297/.Google Scholar

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¹²³ See Craig v. Masterpiece Cakeshop, Inc., 370 P.3d 272 (Colo. Ct. App. 2015), cert. granted, 85 U.S.L.W. 3593 (U.S. Jun. 26, 2017) (No. 16–111).Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Basic Right of Freedom of Conscience [1970], in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

¹²⁵ I make this argument in Julian Rivers, Liberal Constitutionalism and Christian Political Thought, in Christian Perspectives on the Limits of law (Paul Beaumont ed., 2002). See also Rivers, Julian, The Secularisation of the British Constitution, 14 ECCL. L. J. 371 (2012).Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Rise of the State as a Process of Secularization, in 2 Religion, law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018); Harold Berman, law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition (1983); Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism (2014).Google Scholar

¹²⁷ This is a 19th century struggle, even in the case of the United States, as Steven Green has persuasively shown: Green, Steven K., The Second Disestablishment (2010).Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Political Theory and Political Theology: Comments on Their Reciprocal Relationship [1983], in 2 Religion, law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

¹²⁹ The liberal pluralist tradition of Gierke, Maitland and Figgis is beginning to be recovered by, e.g., Muñiz-Fraticelli, Victor M., The Structure of Pluralism: On the Authority of Associations (2014).Google Scholar

¹³⁰ This emerges very clearly in his interventions in the Grundwertedebatte from 1976 onwards.Google Scholar

¹³¹ In a surprisingly robust dictum, even the Supreme Court has warned of a risk of creeping totalitarianism: Christian Institute v. Lord Advocate [2016] UKSC 51, ¶ 73 (UK).Google Scholar

¹³² Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Thoughts on the Relationship Between State and Religion in Hegel [1982], in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

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¹³⁴ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Secularized State: Its Character, Justification and Problems in the 21st Century [2007], in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

¹³⁵ Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: An Author's Reflections, 76 Denv. L.R. 937 (1999).Google Scholar

¹³⁶ I set out my reasons for preferring “civic loyalty” in Julian Rivers, Fundamental British Values and the Virtues of Civic Loyalty, 21(5) Ethics in Brief (2016), http://klice.co.uk/uploads/Ethics%20in%20Brief/EiB_Rivers_21_5_WEB.pdf.Google Scholar

¹³⁷ There is obviously a considerable literature on constitutional patriotism I cannot engage with here. For a helpful discussion, see the essays by Jan-Werner Müller, Karol Edward Soltan, Mattias Kumm and David Abraham, in: Symposium, Constitutional Patriotism, 6 Int'l J. Const. L. 67–152 (2008).Google Scholar

¹³⁸ Böckenförde makes this very clear in his essay Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The State as an Ethical State, in 1 Constitutional and Political Theory: Selected Writings 101–5 (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., 2017).Google Scholar

¹³⁹ The contrast here is between something like a Rawlsian “thin theory of the good” for public bodies and a fuller conception implicit in, say, devotion to a religious community. Concerns ab out the tendencies to impose “equality and human rights values” simplistically on faith-based welfare organizations are discussed in Julian Rivers, The Law of Organized Religions: Between Establishment and Secularism 276–88 (2010).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ Woolf Institute Commission on Religion and Belief in British Public Life, Living with Difference: Community, Diversity and the Common Good (Dec. 7, 2015).Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ Throughout his life, Böckenförde was committed to persuading his own fellow Roman Catholics, and their Church institutionally, to commit—for Christian reasons—to the principles of a free democratic order. See, e.g., Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang, Das Ethos der modernen Demokratie und die Kirche, in Kirche Und Christlicher Glaube In Den Herausforderungen Der Zeit (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁴² The work of the independent Commission on Religious Education is clearly significant here. See Commission on Religious Education, http://www.commissiononre.org.uk/ (accessed Nov. 9, 2017).Google Scholar

¹⁴³ The Casey Review, supra note 55, at 169.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁴ The introduction of a question on religious identity in the 2001 National Census provoked a popular movement which saw 390,000 people identify themselves as “Jedi knights.” However, the 2011 Census only recorded 177,000, a rate of reduction surpassing even that of the older Protestant denominations.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁵ John Milton, Areopagitica (1644).Google Scholar