Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4rdrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-28T22:18:13.711Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Comprehensive examination of the human fetus

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 October 2008

CR Harman*
Affiliation:
Fetal Assessment Unit, Women's Hospital, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
*
Dr CR Harman, Director, Fetal Assessment Unit, Division of Maternal and Fetal Medicine, Women's Hospital, 735 Notre Dame Avenue, New Guy's House, London Bridge, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E OL8Canada.

Extract

We cannot talk to the fetus. Our ability to place the fetal condition accurately in context, therefore, lies with indirect evidence and inferred responses. We can examine the fetus. We can do so in a most comprehensive fashion, addressing the salient points of fetal anatomy, both structural and functional. We are able to perform routine evaluation of every system and the methodology is available to assess critical areas such as the heart and the central nervous system in specific detail.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1989

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Green, JJ, HObbins, JC. Abdominal ultrasound examination of the first-trimester fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988, 159: 165–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2 de Crespigny, LC. Early diagnosis of pregnancy failure with transvaginal ultrasound. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 408409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3 Birnholz, JC, Farrell, EE. Ultrasound images of human fetal development. Am Scient 1984; 72: 608–13.Google Scholar
4 Weiner, CP. Cordocentesis. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am 1988; 15: 283301.Google ScholarPubMed
5 Nicolaides, KH, Soothill, PW, Rodeck, CH, Clewell, W. Rh disease: intravascular fetal blood transfusion by cordocentesis. Fet Therapy 1986; 1: 185–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6 Harman, CR, Bowman, JM, Manning, FA, Lange, IR, Menticoglou, S. Intravascular fetal transfusion – integration into a successful Rh program. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada, Vancouver, 1988.Google Scholar
7 Arias, F, Retto, H. The use of Doppler waveform analysis in the evaluation of the high-risk fetus.. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am 1988; 15: 265–81.Google ScholarPubMed
8 Allan, LD, Joseph, MC, Boyd, EGCA et al. M-mode echocardiography in the developing human fetus. Br Heart J 1982; 47: 573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9 Smith, CV, Paul, RH. Antepartum cardiotocography. Baillière's Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987; 1: 1728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10 Gagnon, R, Patrick, J, Foreman, J. Stimulation of human fetuses with sound and vibration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986; 155: 848–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11 Natale, R, Richadson, B, Patrick, J. Effect of intravenous glucose infusion on human fetal breathing activity. Obstet Gyneco 1981; 59 320–24.Google Scholar
12 Chervenak, FA. The diagnosis of intrauterine growth retadation. Contemporary Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1988; 3 7382.Google Scholar
13 Hadlock, FP, Deter, RL, Harrist, RB, Park, SK. Estimating fetal age: computer-assisted analysis of multiple fetal growth parameters.. Radiology. 1984; 152 497501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14 Bezjian, AA. Sonographic evaluation of the placenta. Contemporary Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1988; 3 4160.Google Scholar
15 Sulak, LE, Dodson, MG. The vanishing twin: pathologic confirmation of an ultrasonographic phenomenon. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 68: 811–15.Google ScholarPubMed
16 Winsor, EJT, St John Brown, B, Luther, ER, Heifetz, SA, Welch, JP. Deceased co-twin as a cause of false positive amniotic fluid AFP and AchE. Prenat Diagn 1987; 7: 485–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17 Johnson, JM, Harman, CR, Evans, J, MacDonald, K. Maternal serum alphafetoprotein in twin pregnancy. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada, Vancouver. 1988.Google Scholar
18 Storlazzi, E, Vintzileos, AM, Campbell, WA, Nochimson, DJ, Weinbaum, PJ. Ultrasonic diagnosis of discordant fetal growth in twin gestations. 1987; 69: 363–67.Google Scholar
19 Ott, WJ. The diagnosis of altered fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am 1988; 15: 237–63.Google ScholarPubMed
20 Galea, P, Scott, JM, Goel, KM. Feto-fetal transfusion syndrome. Arch Dis Childh 1982; 57: 781–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21 Campbell, J, Henderson, A, Campbell, S The fetal femur/foot length ratio: a new parameter to assess dysplastic limb reduction. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72 181–84.Google ScholarPubMed
22 Deter, RL, Rossavik, IK, Harrist, RB et al. Mathematical modeling of fetal growth: development of individual growth curve standards. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 68: 156.Google ScholarPubMed
23 Campbell, S, Thomas, A. Ultrasound measurement of the fetal head-to-abdomen circumference ratio in the assessment of growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1977; 84: 165–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24 Hadlock, FP, Deter, RL, Harrist, RB et al. A date-independent predictor of intrauterine growth retardation: femur length/abdominal circumference ratio. Am J Radiol 1983; 141 979Google ScholarPubMed
25 Manning, FA, Menticoglou, S, Harman, CR, Morrison, I, Lange, IR. Antepartum fetal risk assessment: the role of the fetal biophysical profile score. Baillière's Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1987; 1: 5572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26 Manning, FA, Morrison, IR, Harman, CR, Lange, I, Menticoglou, S. The fetal biophysical profile score: functional practical aspects. Contemporary Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1988; 3: 8392.Google Scholar
27 Manning, FA, Morrison, I, Lange, IR et al. Fetal assessment based on fetal biophysical profile scoring: experience in 12,620 referred high risk pregnancies. I. Perinatal mortality by frequency and etiology. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 151: 343–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28 Williamson, RA, Weiner, CP, Patil, S, Benda, J, Varner, MW, Abu-Yousef, MM. Abnormal pregnancy sonogram: selective indication for fetal karyotype. Obstet Gynecol 1987; 69: 1520.Google ScholarPubMed
29 Nicolaides, KH, Rodeck, CH, Gosden, CM. Rapid karyotyping in nonlethal fetal malformations. Lancet 1986; i: 283–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30 Benacerraf, BR, Frigoletto, FD, Bieber, FR. The fetal face: Ultrasound examination. Radiology 1984; 153: 495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31 Pilu, G, Reece, EA, Romero, R et al. Prenatal diagnosis of craniofacial malformations with ultrasonography. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986; 155: 4550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32 Jeanty, P, Romero, R, Staudach, A et al. Facial anatomy of the fetus. J Ultrasound Med 1986; 5: 607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33 Romero, R, Pilu, G, Jeanty, P, Ghidini, A, Hobbins, JC. Normal sonographic anatomy of the fetal central nervous system – The central nervous system. In: Prenatal diagnosis of congenital anomalies Norwalk: Appleton & Lange 1988; 121.Google ScholarPubMed
34 Birnholz, J. Fetal neurology. Ultrasound Annual 1984: 139–60.Google Scholar
35 Chervenak, FA, Isaacson, G, Lorber, J. Normal anatomy. In: Anomalies of the fetal head, neck and spine: ultrasound diagnosis and management. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co, 1988: 137.Google Scholar
36 Nicolaides, KH, Campbell, S, Gabbe, SG, Guidetti, R. Ultrasound screening for spina bifida: cranial and cerebellar signs. Lancet 1986; ii: 7274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37 Pilu, G, Romero, R, DePalma, L, Jeanty, P, Burdine, C, Hobbins, JC. Ultrasound investigation of the posterior fossa in the fetus. Am J Perinatol 1987; 4: 155–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38 Chitkara, U, Cogswell, C, Norton, K, Wilkins, IA, Mehalek, K, Berkowitz, RL. Choroid plexus cysts in the fetus: a benign anatomic variant or pathologic entity? Report of 41 cases and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72: 185–89.Google ScholarPubMed
39 Hadlock, FP, Deter, RL, Harrist, RB et al. Fetal biparietal diameter: rational choice of plane of section for sonographic measurement. Am J Roentgenol 1982; 138: 871CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40 Shepard, M, Filly, RA. A standardized plane for biparietal diameter measurement. J Ultrasound Med 1982; 1: 145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41 Mayden, KL, Tortora, M, Berkowitz, RL et al. Orbital diameters: a new parameter for prenatal diagnosis and dating. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 144: 289–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42 Benacerraf, BR, Gelman, R, Frigoletto, FD. Sonographic identification of second-trimester fetuses with Down's syndrome. N Engl J Med 1987; 317 1371–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43 Wladimiroff, JW, Tonge, HM, Stewart, PA. Doppler ultrasound assessment of cerebral blood flow in the human fetus. 1986 93 471–75.Google ScholarPubMed
44 Allan, LD, Crawford, DC, Anderson, RH, Tynan, MJ. Echocardiographic and anatomical correlations in fetal congenital heart disease. Br Heart J 1984; 52: 542–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45 Allan, LD. Manual of fetal echocardiography. Norwell: MTP Press Ltd., 1986.Google Scholar
46 Silverman, NH, Golbus, MS. Echocardiographic techniques for assessing normal and abnormal fetal cardiac anatomy. J Am Coll 1985; 5: 20S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47 Allan, LD, Chita, SK, Al-Ghazali, W, Crawford, DC, Tynan, M. Doppler echocardiographic evaluation of the normal human fetal heart. Br Heart J 1987; 57: 528–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48 Crawford, DC, Chita, SK, Allan, LD. Prenatal detection of congenital heart disease: factors affecting obstetric management and survival. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 352–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49 Berg, KA, Clark, EB, Astemborski, JA, Boughman, JA. Prenatal detection of cardiovascular malformations by echocardiography: an indication for cytogenetic evaluation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 477–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50 Fried, AM, Loh, FK, Umer, MA et al. Echogenicity of fetal lung: relation to fetal age and maturity. AJR 1985; 145: 591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51 Reeves, GS, Garrett, WJ, Warren, PS, Fisher, CC. Observations of fetal lung reflectivity using real-time ultrasound. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 1984; 24: 91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52 Mayden, KL, Tortora, M, Chervenak, FA et al. The antenatal sonographic detection of lung masses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 148: 349–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53 Elliott, JP, Garite, TJ, Freeman, RK et al. Ultrasonic prediction of fetal macrosomia in diabetic patients. Obstet Gynecol 1982; 60: 159–62.Google ScholarPubMed
54 Nimrod, C, Nicholson, S, Davies, D, Harder, J, Dodd, G, Sauve, R. Pulmonary hypoplasia testing in clinical obstetrics. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158: 277–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55 D' Alton, M, Dudley, DK. The ultrasonic prediction of fetal pulmonary compromise in patients with ruptured membranes prior to 26 weeks gestation. Proceedings of the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada, 43rd Annual Meeting, Ottawa, June, 1987.Google Scholar
56 De Vore, GR, Siassi, B, Platt, LD. Fetal echocardiography. IV. M-mode assessment of ventricular size and contractility during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy in the normal fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 150: 981–88.Google ScholarPubMed
57 Kenny, JF, Plappert, T, Doubilet, P et al. Changes in intracardiac blood flow velocities and right and left ventricular stroke volumes with gestational age in the normal human fetus: a prospective Doppler echocardiographic study. Circulation 1986; 74 1208–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58 Silverman, NH, Enderlein, MA, Stanger, P, Teitel, DF, Heymann, MA, Golbus, MS. Recognition of fetal arrhythmias by echocardiography. J Clin Ultrasound 1985; 13: 255–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59 Lingman, G, Marsal, K. Fetal cardiac arrhythmias: Doppler assessment. Sent Perinat 1987; 11: 357–61.Google ScholarPubMed
60 Allan, LD, Crawford, DC, Anderson, RH, Tynan, MJ. Evaluation and treatment of fetal arrhythmias. Clin Cardiol 1984; 7: 467–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61 Kleinman, CS, Copel, JA, Weinstein, EM, Santulli, TV, Hobbins, JC. Treatment of fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. J Clin Ultrasound 1985; 13: 265–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62 Birnholz, JC, Farrell, EE. Fetal lung development: compressibility as a measure of maturity. Radiology 1985; 157: 495–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63 Castle, BM, Turnbull, AC. The presence or absence of fetal breathing movements predicts the outcome of preterm labour. Lancet 1983; 2: 471–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64 Vintzileos, AM, Campbell, WA, Nochimson, DJ et al. The fetal biophysical profile in patients with premature rupture of membranes - an early predictor of fetal infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 152 510–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65 Chiba, Y, Utsu, M, Kanzaki, T, Hasegawa, T. Changes in venous flow and intratracheal flow in fetal breathing movements. Ultrasound in Med and Biol 1985; 11: 4349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66 Cyr, DR, Mack, LA, Schoenecker, SA, Patten, RM, Shepard, TH, Shuman, WP, Moss, AA. Bowel migration in the normal fetus: US detection. Radiology 1986; 161: 119–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67 Harman, CR. Specialized applications of obstetric ultrasound: Management of the alloimmunized pregnancy. Sem Perinat 1985; 9: 184–97.Google ScholarPubMed
68 Zilianti, M, Fernandez, S. Correlation of ultrasonic images of fetal intestine with gestational age and fetal maturity. Obstet Gynecol 1983; 62: 569–73.Google ScholarPubMed
69 Nyberg, DA, Mack, LA, Patten, RM et al. Fetal bowel: normal sonographic findings. J Ultrasound Med 1987; 6: 3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70 Stiller, RJ, Roberts, NS, Weiner, S et al. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia: antenatal diagnosis and obstetrical management. J Clin Ultrasound 1985; 13: 212–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71 Jeanty, P, Dramaix-Wilmet, M, Elkhazen, N et al. Measurement of fetal kidney growth on ultrasound. Radiology 1982; 144: 159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72 Arger, PH, Coleman, BG, Mintz, MC et al. Routine fetal genitourinary tract screening. Radiology 1985; 156: 485–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73 Carpenter, MW, Curci, MR, Dibbins, AW et al. Perinatal management of ventral wall defects. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 64: 646–51.Google ScholarPubMed
74 Nakayama, DK, Harrison, MR, Gross, BH et al. Management of the fetus with an abdominal wall defect. J Pediatr Surg 1984; 19: 408–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75 Mercer, B, Mercer, S, D'Alton, M, Dudley, D. Gastroschisis: Its antenatal diagnosis, pathogenesis, management and prognosis. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada, Ottawa, 1987.Google Scholar
76 Knott, PD, Colley, NV. Can fetal gastroschisis always be diagnosed prenatally? Prenatl Diagn 1987; 7: 607–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77 Elejalde, BR, de Elejalde, MM, Heitman, T. Visualization of the fetal genitalia by ultrasonography: A review of the literature and analysis of its accuracy and ethical implications. J Ultrasound Med 1985; 4: 633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78 Hashimoto, BE, Filly, RA, Callen, PW. Fetal pseudoascites: further anatomic observations. J Ultrasound Med 1986; 5: 151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79 Campbell, S, Wilkin, D. Ultrasonic measure ment of fetal abdomen circumference in the estimation of fetal weight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975; 92: 689–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80 Harman, CR, Holmes, S, Gardiner, G, Redman, CWG. Ultrasonic weight estimation in the ‘clinically small’ fetus: a prospective comparison of two methods. Proc Soc Obstet Gynecol Canada, 40th Ann Meeting, Montreal, 1984.Google Scholar
81 Goldstein, I, Reece, EA, Yarkoni, S et al. Growth of the fetal stomach in normal pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 70: 256–60.Google Scholar
82 Schmidt, W, Yarkoni, S, Jeanty, P et al. Sonographic measurements of the fetal spleen: clinical implications. J Ultrasound Med 1985; 4: 667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83 Vintzileos, AM, Neckles, S, Campbell, WA et al. Fetal liver ultrasound measurements during normal pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 66: 477–80.Google ScholarPubMed
84 Goldstein, I, Lockwood, C, Hobbins, JC. Ultrasound assessment of fetal intestinal development in the evaluation of gestational age. Obstet Gynecol 1988, (in press).Google Scholar
85 Eriksen, PS, Marsal, K. Circulatory changes in the fetal aorta after maternal smoking. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 301305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86 Marsal, K, Laurin, J. Lindblad A, Lingman G. Blood flow in the fetal descending aorta. Sem Perinat 1987; 11: 322–34.Google ScholarPubMed
87 Wladimiroff, JW, Campbell, S. Fetal urine-production rates in normal and com plicated pregnancy. Lancet 1974; i: 151–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88 de Elejalde, MM, Elejalde, BR. Visualization of the fetal spine: a proposal of a standard system to increase reliability. Am J Med Genet 1985; 32: 445–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89 Birnholz, JC. Fetal lumbar spine: measuring axial growth with ultrasound. Radiology 1986; 158: 805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
90 Jeanty, P, Romero, R. Obstetrical ultrasound. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983: 183–94.Google Scholar
91 Mahony, BS, Filly, RA. High-resolution sonographic assessment of the fetal extremities. J Ultrasound Med 1984; 3: 489–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92 Barr, M, Hayashi, RH. Fetal foot length as a predictor of fetal age. AmJ Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158: 218–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93 Romero, R, Pilu, G, Jeanty, P, Ghidini, A, Hobbins, JC. Normal anatomy of the fetal skeleton-skeletal dysplasia. In: Prenatal diagnosis of congenital anomalies. Norwalk: Appleton & Lange, 1988: 311–32.Google ScholarPubMed
94 Chamberlain, PF, Manning, FA, Morrison, I et al. Ultrasound evaluation of amniotic fluid volume. I. The relationship of marginal and decreased amniotic fluid volumes to perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 150: 245–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95 Bastide, A, Manning, F, Harman, CR et al. Ultrasound evaluation of amniotic fluid: outcome of pregnancies with severe oligohydramnios. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986; 154: 895900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96 Gross, TL, Wolfson, RN, Kuhnert, PM. Sonographically detected free floating particles in amniotic fluid predict a mature lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio. J Clin Ultrasound 1985; 13: 405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97 Heifetz, SA. Single umbilical artery. A statistical analysis of 237 autopsy cases and review of the literature. Perspect Pediatr Pathol 1984; 8: 345.Google Scholar
98 Lange, IR, Manning, FA, Morrison, I et al. Cord prolapse: is antenatal diagnosis possible? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 151: 1083–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99 Forestier, F, Cox, WL, Daffos, F, Rainaut, M. The assessment of fetal blood samples. AmJ Obstet Gynecol 1987; 158: 1184–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100 Nicolaides, KH, Soothill, PW, Clewell, WH, Rodeck, CH, Mibashan, RS, Campbell, S. Fetal haemoglobin measurement in the assessment of red cell isoimmunisation. Lancet 1988; i: 1073–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101 Cox, WL, Daffos, F, Forestier, F et al. Physiology and management of intrauterine growth retardation: a biologic approach with fetal blood sampling. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159: 3641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102 Giles, WB, Lingman, G, Marsal, K, Trudinger, BJ. Fetal volume blood flow and umbilical artery flow velocity waveform analysis: a comparison. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 93: 461–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103 Giles, WB, Trudinger, BJ. Umbilical cord whole blood viscosity and the umbilical artery flow velocity time waveforms: a correlation. BrJ Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 93: 466–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104 Thompson, RS, Trudinger, BJ, Cook, CM. Doppler ultrasound waveforms in the fetal umbilical artery: quantitative analysis technique. UltrasoundMed Biol 1985; 11: 707–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105 DeVore, GR, Brar, HS, Platt, LD. Doppler ultrasound in the fetus: a review of current applications. J Clin Ultrasound 1987; 15: 687703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106 Gottesfeld, KR. The clinical role of placental imaging. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1984; 27: 327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107 Hoddich, WK, Mahoney, BS, Callen, PW et al. Placental thickness. J Ultrasound Med 1985; 4: 479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108 Grannum, PAT, Berkowitz, RL, Hobbins, JC. The ultrasonic changes in the maturing placenta and their relation to fetal pulmonic maturity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 133: 915–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109 Harman, CR, Manning, FA, Stearns, E et al. The correlation of ultrasonic placental grading and fetal pulmonary maturitation in five hundred sixty-three pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 143: 941–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110 Kazzi, A, Gross, TL, Sokol, RJ et al. Detection of intrauterine growth retardation: a new use for sonographic placental grading. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 145: 733–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111 Patterson, RM, Hayashi, RH, Cavazos, D. Ultrasonographically observed early placental maturation and perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 147: 773–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112 Campbell, S, Bewley, S, Cohen-Overbeek, T. Investigation of the uteroplacental circulation by Doppler ultrasound. Sem Perinat 1987; 11: 362–68.Google ScholarPubMed
113 Schulman, H, Ducey, J, Farmakides, G et al. Uterine artery Doppler velocimetry: the significance of divergent systolic/diastolic ratios. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 1539–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114 Duff, GB. The realities of screening for the small for dates fetus using ultrasound measurement. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 26: 102105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115 DeVore, GR, Platt, LD. Diagnosis of intrauterine growth retardation: the use of sequential measurements of fetal growth parameters. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987; 30: 968–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116 Andrews, M, Webster, M, Fleming, JEE, McNay, MB. Ultrasound exposure time in routine obstetric scanning. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 843–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117 Donnai, D. The management of the patient having fetal diagnosis. Bailliere's Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987; 1; 737–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed