Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c4f8m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T01:44:46.913Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

RING THE ALARM

Black Girls in the Discourse on the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2020

Jelisa S. Clark
Jelisa S. Clark*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Fayetteville State University
*
Corresponding author: Jelisa S. Clark, Department of Sociology, Fayetteville State University, 1200 Murchison Rd., Fayetteville, NC28304. E-mail: jclark38@uncfsu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this research, I use theories of framing and social construction to investigate how race and gender are featured in national news coverage of the school-to-prison pipeline, and how policies and practices funnel students from school to the criminal justice system. Results indicate that there are three primary narratives surrounding the school-to-prison pipeline. The first is a narrative that harsh disciplinary practices in schools are irrational and negatively impact all students. The second narrative crafts the school-to-prison pipeline as a social problem for all Black students irrespective of gender. The final narrative emphasizes the impact of exclusionary discipline on Black boys. Each of these narratives functions to erase the experiences of Black girls. Ultimately, I argue that we need to take a more intersectional approach to school discipline policies and take into account how Black women and girls are situated within popular and policy discussions.

Keywords

Black GirlsRaceFramingSocial ConstructionSchool Discipline
Type
State of the Art
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , Spring 2020 , pp. 147 - 163
Copyright
© 2020 Hutchins Center for African and African American Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Advancement Project (2005). Education on Lockdown: The Schoolhouse to Jailhouse Track. Washington, D.C.: Advancement Project.Google Scholar
An, Seon-Kyong, and Gower, Karla K. (2009). How do the News Media Frame Crises?: A Content Analysis of Crisis News Coverage. Public Relations Review, 35(2): 107–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annamma, Subini Ancy, Anyon, Yolanda, Joseph, Nicole M., Farrar, Jordan, Greer, Eldridge, Downing, Barbara, and Simmons, John (2019). Black Girls and School Discipline: The Complexities of Being Overrepresented and Understudied. Urban Education, 54 (2): 211–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, Louise, Halsall, Anna, and Hollingworth, Sumi (2007). Inner-City Femininities and Education: ‘Race,’ Class, Gender, and Schooling in Young Women’s Lives. Gender & Education, 19(5): 549–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arcia, Emily (2006). Achievement and Enrollment Status of Suspended Students: Outcomes in a Large, Multicultural School District. Education and Urban Society, 38(3): 359–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, Peter L., and Luckmann, Thomas (1967). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Binder, Amy (1993). Construction Racial Rhetoric: Media Depictions of Harm in Heavy Metal and Rap Music. American Sociological Review, 58(6): 753–767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, Jamila J., Butler, Bettie Ray, Lewis, Chance W., and Darensbourg, Alicia (2011). Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Educational Stakeholders. The Urban Review, 43(1): 90–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreiras, Manuel, Garnham, Alan, Oakhill, Jane, and Cain, Kate (1996). The Use of Stereotypical Gender Information in Constructing a Mental Model: Evidence From English and Spanish. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A–Human Experimental Psychology, 49(3): 639–663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, Mariko (2010). Lifting as We Climb: Women of Color, Wealth, and America’s Future. Oakland, CA: Center for Community and Economic Development.Google Scholar
Charmaz, Kathy (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Druckman, James N. (2007). Framing Theory. Annual Review Of Political Science, 10:103–126.Google Scholar
Christie, Thomas B. (2006). Framing Rationale for The Iraq War: The Interaction of Public Support with Mass Media and Public Policy Agendas. International Communication Gazette, 68 (5-6): 519–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, M. Diane, Petras, Hanno, Kellam, Sheppard G., Ialongo, Nicholas, and Poduska, Jeanne M. (2003). Who’s Most at Risk for School Removal and Later Juvenile Delinquency?: Effects of Early Risk Factors, Gender, School/ Community Poverty, and Their Impact on More Distal Outcomes. Women & Criminal Justice, 14(2-3): 89–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill (2005). Black Sexual Politics. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Corbin, Juliet, and Strauss, Anselm (2015). The Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Craven, Julia (2015). The Girl Who Was Assaulted by a Cop on Camera at Spring Valley High is Now Facing Charges. Huffington Post, December 15. <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/charges-assault-spring-valley-high_us_56733c14e4b014efe0d4d59c> (accessed September 25, 2018).+(accessed+September+25,+2018).>Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberlé (2014). The Girls Obama Forgot. The New York Times, July 29. < https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/30/opinion/Kimberl-Williams-Crenshaw-My-Brothers-Keeper-Ignores-Young-Black-Women.html> (accessed April 17, 2017).+(accessed+April+17,+2017).>Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Ritchie, Andrea J., Anspach, Rachel, Gilmer, Rachel, and Harris, Luke (2015a). Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women. New York: African American Policy Forum, Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Ocen, Priscilla, and Nanda, Jyoti (2015b). Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpoliced, and Underprotected. New York: African American Policy Forum, Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies.Google Scholar
Dixson, Adrienne D. and Chambers, Crystal Renee (2012). College Predisposition and the Dilemma of Being Black and Female in High School. In Bush, Barbara, Chambers, Crystal Renee, Walpole, Mary Beth (Eds.), From Diplomas to Doctorates: The Success of Black Women in Higher Education and its Implications for Equal Educational Opportunities for All, pp. 21-38. Sterling, VA.: Stylus Publishing.Google Scholar
Dumas, Michael J. (2016). My Brother As ‘Problem’: Neoliberal Governmentality and Interventions for Black Young Men and Boys. Educational Policy, 30(1): 94–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fabelo, Tony Thompson, Plotkin, Michael D., Carmichael, Martha, Miner, Dottie Marchbanks, and Booth, Eric A. (2011). Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement. New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center and Public Policy Research Institute.Google Scholar
Fenning, Pamela, and Rose, Jennifer (2007). Overrepresentation of African American Students in Exclusionary Discipline: The Role of School Policy. Urban Education, 42(6): 536–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, Judith D. (2009). Framing Gender: Federal Appellate Judges’ Choices About Gender- Neutral Language. University of San Francisco Law Review, 43: 473–506.Google Scholar
Fordham, Signithia (1993). “Those Loud Black Girls”: (Black) Women, Silence, and Gender “Passing” in the Academy. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 24(1): 3–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garnham, Alan, Oakhill, Jane, and Reynolds, David (2002). Are Inferences from Stereotyped Role Names to Characters’ Gender Made Elaboratively? Memory & Cognition, 30(3): 439–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gitlin, Todd (2003). The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Glaser, Barney G., and Strauss, Anselm L. (1999). Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving (1974). Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gregory, Anne, Skiba, Russell J., and Noguera, Pedro A. (2010). The Achievement Gap and The Discipline Gap: Two Sides of The Same Coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1): 59–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, Anne, Cornell, Dewey, and Fan, Xitao (2011). The Relationship of School Structure and Support to Suspension Rates for Black and White High School Students. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4): 904–934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, Kimberly, and Kohenak, Marcie (2007). Race, Poverty, and Causal Attributions: Media Framing of the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Paper Presented at The Annual Meeting of The Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL. April.Google Scholar
Gygax, Pascal, Gabriel, Ute, Sarrasin, Oriane, Garnham, Alan, and Oakhill, Jane (2008). Generically Intended, but Specifically Interpreted: When Beauticians, Musicians, and Mechanics Are All Men. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(3): 464–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, Mykol C. (1988). Using Masculine Generics: Does Generic he Increase Male Bias in the User’s Imagery? Sex Roles, 19(11-12): 785–799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris-Perry, Melissa V. (2011). Sister Citizen: Shame, Stereotypes, and Black Women in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hartmann, Heidi, Childers, Chandra, Shaw, Elyse, Sacco-Calderone, Bianca, and Johnson, Sheya (2015). Toward Our Children’s Keeper: A Data-Driven Analysis of the Interim Report of the My Brother’s Keeper Initiative Shows the Shared Fate of Boys and Girls of Color. Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research.Google Scholar
Haynes, Chayla (2016). Three Parts, One Struggle: Black Women and Girls Battling Invisibility in U.S. Classrooms. The Journal of Negro Education, 85(3): 380–391.Google Scholar
hooks, bell (2015). Ain’t I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hyde, Janet S. (1984). Children’s Understanding of Sexist Language. Developmental Psychology, 20(4): 697–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irmen, Lisa, and Rossberg, Nadja (2004). Gender Markedness of Language: The Impact of Grammatical and Nonlinguistic Information on the Mental Representation of Person Information. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 23(3): 272–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Nikki (2010). Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-City Violence. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Kian, Edward M. (2008). Study Examines Stereotypes in Two National Newspapers. Newspaper Research Journal, 29(3): 38–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kidd, Virginia (1971). A Study of Images Produced Through the Use of the Male Pronoun as the Generic. Moments in Contemporary Rhetoric and Communication, 1(2): 25–30.Google Scholar
Kim, Catherine Y. (2009/2010). Procedures for Public Law Remediation in School-to-Prison Pipeline Litigation: Lessons Learned From Antoine V. Winner School District. New York Law School Review, 54: 956–974Google Scholar
Lakoff, George (2004). Don’t Think Of An Elephant!: Know Your Values and Frame The Debate. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Lewis, Chance W., Butler, Bettie Ray, Bonner, Fred A. III, and Joubert, Marcus (2010). African American Male Discipline Patterns and School District Responses Resulting Impact on Academic Achievement: Implications for Urban Educators and Policy Makers. Journal of African American Males in Education, 1(1): 7–25.Google Scholar
Lippman, Walter (1960). Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Lopez, Nancy (2002). Rewriting Race and Gender High School Lessons: Second- Generation Dominicans in New York City. Teachers College Record, 104(6): 1187–1203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Losen, Daniel. J., and Skiba, Russell (2010). Suspended Education: Urban Middle Schools in Crisis. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center.Google Scholar
Martyna, Wendy (1980). Beyond the “He/Man” Approach: The Case for Nonsexist Language. Signs, 5(3): 482–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthes, Jörg (2009). What’s in a Frame?: A Content Analysis of Media Framing Studies in the World’s Leading Communication Journals, 1990–2005. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 86: 349–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendez, Linda M. Raffaele, and Knoff, Howard M. (2003). Who Gets Suspended From School and Why?: A Demographic Analysis of Schools and Disciplinary Infractions in a Large School District. Education and Treatment of Children, 26(1): 30–51.Google Scholar
Morris, Edward W. (2007): “Ladies” or “Loudies”?: Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms. Youth & Society, 38: 490–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, Monique W. (2012). Race, Gender, and the School to Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls. New York: African American Policy Forum.Google Scholar
Morris, Monique W. (2012). Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2018). Digest of Education Statistics, Table 326.10 Graduation Rates. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.Google Scholar
Nelson, Thomas E., Clawson, Rosalee A., and Oxley, Zoe M. (1997). Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effect on Tolerance. American Political Science Review, 91(3): 567–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicolas, Donald G. (2014). Where Are the Black Male Teachers? Education Week, February 25. <http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/02/26/22nicolas_ep.h33.html> (accessed September 25, 2018).+(accessed+September+25,+2018).>Google Scholar
Oakhill, Jane, Garnham, Alan, and Reynolds, David (2005). Immediate Activation of Stereotypical Gender Information. Memory & Cognition, 33(6): 972–983.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osler, Audrey, Street, Cathy, Vincent, Kerry, and Lall, Marie-Carine (2002). Not a Problem?: Girls and School Exclusion. London: National Children’s Bureau.Google Scholar
Patton, Lori D., Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Haynes, Chayla, and Watson, Terri N. (2016). Why We Can’t Wait: (Re)Examining the Opportunities and Challenges for Black Women and Girls in Education (Guest Editorial). The Journal of Negro Education, 85(3): 194–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, Lori D., and Croom, Natasha N. (2017). Critical Perspectives on Undergraduate Black Women. In Patton, Lori D. and Croom, Natasha N. (Eds.), Critical Perspectives on Black Women and College Success, pp. 1–14. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauwels, Anne (1998). Women Changing Language. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Emiko, Petrosky, Blair, Janet M., Betz, Carter J., Fowler, Katherine A., Jack, Shane P. D., Lyons, Bridget H. (2017). Racial and Ethnic Differences in Homicides of Adult Women and The Role Of Intimate Partner Violence — United States, 2003–2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Atlanta, GA.: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Google Scholar
Pratte-Clark, Menah A. E. (2010). Critical Race Feminisms: A Social Justice Model. New York: Palgrave McMillian.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prewitt-Freilino, Jennifer L., Caswell, T. Andrew, and Laakso, Emmi K. (2012). The Gendering of Language: A Comparison of Gender Equality in Countries with Gendered, Natural Gender, and Genderless Languages. Sex Roles 66(3–4): 268–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Dorothy E. (1999). Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Simkins, Sandra B., Hirsch, Amy E., Horvat, Ernin Mcnamara, and Moss, Majore B.. (2004). The Pipeline for Girls: The Role of Physical and Sexual Abuse. Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 24:56–72Google Scholar
Skiba, Russell, and Peterson, Reece (2003). Teaching the Social Curriculum: School Discipline as Instruction. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 47(2): 66–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith-Evans, Leticia, George, Janel, Graves, Fatima Goss, Kaufmann, Lara S., and Frohlich, Lauren (2014). Unlocking Opportunity for African American Girls: A Call to Action for Educational Equity. New York: NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund and National Women’s Law Center.Google Scholar
Spender, Dale (1990). Man Made Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Stahlberg, Dagmar, Braun, Friederike, Irmen, Lisa, and Sczensny, Sabine (2011). Representations of Sexes in Language. In Fielder, Klaus (Ed.) Social Communication, pp.163–188. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Strauss, Valerie (2015). Black Male Teachers: There Aren’t Enough of Them. The Washington Post, April 28. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2015/04/28/black-male-teachers-there-arent-enough-of-them/> (accessed September 25, 2018).+(accessed+September+25,+2018).>Google Scholar
Switzer, Jo Yong (1990). The Impact of Generic Word Choices: An Empirical Investigation of Age- and Sex-related Differences. Sex Roles, 22(1-2): 69–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor-Clark, Kalahn Alexander, Mebane, Felicia E., Steelfisher, Gillian K., and Blendon, Robert J. (2007). News of Disparity: Content Analysis of News Coverage of African American Healthcare Inequalities in the USA, 1994–2004. Social Science & Medicine, 65: 405–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Duane E. and Stevenson, Howard. (2009). Gender Risks and Education: The Particular Classroom Challenges for Urban Low-Income African American Boys. Review of Research in Education 33(1):160–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toldson, Ivory A. (2011). Breaking Barriers 2: Plotting a Path Away From Juvenile Detention and Toward Academic Success For School-Age African American Males. Washington, DC: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education (DOE), Office for Civil Rights. (2014). Civil Rights Data Collection Data Snapshot: School Discipline. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of EducationGoogle Scholar
Van Gorp, Baldwin (2007). The Constructionist Approach to Framing: Bringing Culture Back In. Journal of Communication, 57: 60–78.Google Scholar
Wald, Johanna, and Losen, Daniel J. (2003). Defining and Redirecting a School-to Prison Pipeline. New Directions for Youth Development, 2003(99): 9–15.Google Scholar
Wallace, John M., Goodkind, Sara, Wallace, Cynthia M., and Bachman, Jerald G. (2007). Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in School Discipline Among U.S. High School Students: 1991–2005. The Negro Educational Review, 59(1-2): 47–62.Google Scholar
Wanta, Wayne, and Hu, Yu-Wei (1993). The Agenda-Setting Effects of International News Coverage: An Examination of Differing News Frames. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 5(3): 250–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Washington Post (2020). Fatal Force. June, 18. <https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/> (accessed June 18, 2020)+(accessed+June+18,+2020)>Google Scholar
Watkins, S. Craig (2001). Framing Protest: News Media Frames of the Million Man March. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 18(1): 83–101.Google Scholar
Wun, Connie (2018). Angered: Black and Non-Black Girls of Color at the Intersections of Violence and School Discipline in the United States. Race, Ethnicity & Education, 21(4): 423–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhongdang, Pan and Kosicki, Gerald M. (1993). Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse. Political Communication, 10 (1): 55–75.Google Scholar