Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-27gpq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T17:20:16.952Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Etiological features of borderline personality related characteristics in a birth cohort of 12-year-old children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2012

Daniel W. Belsky*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Duke University
Avshalom Caspi
Affiliation:
Duke University King's College London
Louise Arseneault
Affiliation:
King's College London
Wiebke Bleidorn
Affiliation:
Bielefeld University
Peter Fonagy
Affiliation:
University College London
Marianne Goodman
Affiliation:
Mt. Sinai School of Medicine James J. Peters VA Medical Center
Renate Houts
Affiliation:
Duke University
Terrie E. Moffitt
Affiliation:
Duke University King's College London
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Daniel W. Belsky, 2020 West Main Street, Suite 201, Durham, NC 27708; E-mail: dbelsky@unc.edu.

Abstract

It has been reported that borderline personality related characteristics can be observed in children, and that these characteristics are associated with increased risk for the development of borderline personality disorder. It is not clear whether borderline personality related characteristics in children share etiological features with adult borderline personality disorder. We investigated the etiology of borderline personality related characteristics in a longitudinal cohort study of 1,116 pairs of same-sex twins followed from birth through age 12 years. Borderline personality related characteristics measured at age 12 years were highly heritable, were more common in children who had exhibited poor cognitive function, impulsivity, and more behavioral and emotional problems at age 5 years, and co-occurred with symptoms of conduct disorder, depression, anxiety, and psychosis. Exposure to harsh treatment in the family environment through age 10 years predicted borderline personality related characteristics at age 12 years. This association showed evidence of environmental mediation and was stronger among children with a family history of psychiatric illness, consistent with diathesis–stress models of borderline etiology. Results indicate that borderline personality related characteristics in children share etiological features with borderline personality disorder in adults and suggest that inherited and environmental risk factors make independent and interactive contributions to borderline etiology.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. (2009). The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA): Development, findings, theory, and applications. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., Becker, A., Dopfner, M., Heiervang, E., Roessner, V., Steinhausen, H. C., et al. (2008). Multicultural assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology with ASEBA and SDQ instruments: Research findings, applications, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 251275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2010). Proposed draft revisions to DSM disorders and criteria. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/PersonalityandPersonalityDisorders.aspGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2008). Eight-year follow-up of patients treated for borderline personality disorder: Mentalization-based treatment versus treatment as usual. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 631638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateman, A. W., Ryle, A., Fonagy, P., & Kerr, I. B. (2007). Psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: Mentalization based therapy and cognitive analytic therapy compared. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 5162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battle, C. L., Shea, M. T., Johnson, D. M., Yen, S., Zlotnick, C., Zanarini, M. C., et al. (2004). Childhood maltreatment associated with adult personality disorders: Findings from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 193211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Klein, D. N., Crowell, S. E., Derbidge, C., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. (2009). Multifinality in the development of personality disorders: A Biology × Sex × Environment interaction model of antisocial and borderline traits. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 735770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bemporad, J. R., Smith, H. F., Hanson, G., & Cicchetti, D. (1982). Borderline syndromes in childhood: Criteria for diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 596602.Google ScholarPubMed
Bender, D. S., Dolan, R. T., Skodol, A. E., Sanislow, C. A., Dyck, I. R., McGlashan, T. H., et al. (2001). Treatment utilization by patients with personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 295302.Google Scholar
Berenbaum, M. C. (1989). What is synergy? Pharmacological Reviews, 41, 93141.Google ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Schwabstone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality-disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 12371243.Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2009). Stability, change, and heritability of borderline personality disorder traits from adolescence to adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 13351353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botto, L. D., & Khoury, M. J. (2001). Commentary: Facing the challenge of gene–environment interaction: The two-by-four table and beyond. American Journal of Epidemiology, 153, 10161020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R., Jenei, J., & Westen, D. (2005). Etiology of borderline personality disorder: Disentangling the contributions of intercorrelated antecedents. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 2431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R., Zittel Conklin, C., & Westen, D. (2005). The borderline personality diagnosis in adolescents: Gender differences and subtypes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 10061019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, F. A., Pungello, E., Miller-Johnson, S., Burchinal, M., & Ramey, C. T. (2001). The development of cognitive and academic abilities: Growth curves from an early childhood educational experiment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 231242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, M., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Murray, R. M., et al. (2002). Evidence for early-childhood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder—Results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 449456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (2009). A prospective investigation of the development of borderline personality symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 13111334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 509527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 66, 5568.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Morgan, J., Rutter, M., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., et al. (2004). Maternal expressed emotion predicts children's antisocial behavior problems: Using monozygotic-twin differences to identify environmental effects on behavioral development. Developmental Psychology, 40, 149161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Newman, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders—Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 10331039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chabrol, H., Montovany, A., Chouicha, K., Callahan, S., & Mullet, E. (2001). Frequency of borderline personality disorder in a sample of French high school students. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 847849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chabrol, H., Montovany, A., Duconge, E., Kallmeyer, A., Mullet, E., & Leichsenring, F. (2004). Factor structure of the Borderline Personality Inventory in adolescents. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20, 5965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chanen, A. M., Jovev, M., & Jackson, H. J. (2007). Adaptive functioning and psychiatric symptoms in adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 297306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chanen, A. M., Jovev, M., McCutcheon, L. K., Jackson, H. J., & McGorry, P. D. (2008). Borderline personality disorder in young people and the prospects for prevention and early intervention. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 4, 4857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiesa, M., Fonagy, P., & Holmes, J. (2006). Six-year follow-up of three treatment programs to personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 493509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coan, J. A. (2008). Toward a neuroscience of attachment. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 666697). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P. R., Chen, H. N. A., Anglin, D. M., & Ehrensaft, M. (2009). Early maternal separation and the trajectory of borderline personality disorder symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 10131030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., Murray-Close, D., & Woods, K. (2005). Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 10511070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., & Linehan, M. M. (2009). A biosocial developmental model of borderline personality: Elaborating and extending Linehan's theory. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 495510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., McCauley, E., Smith, C. J., Stevens, A. L., & Sylvers, P. (2005). Psychological, autonomic, and serotonergic correlates of parasuicide among adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 11051127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Distel, M. A., Trull, T. J., Derom, C. A., Thiery, E. W., Grimmer, M. A., Martin, N. G., et al. (2008). Heritability of borderline personality disorder features is similar across three countries. Psychological Medicine, 38, 12191229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 16781683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donelan-McCall, N., Eckenrode, J., & Olds, D. L. (2009). Home visiting for the prevention of child maltreatment: Lessons learned during the past 20 years. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 56, 389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P., & Bateman, A. (2008). The development of borderline personality disorder—A mentalizing model. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P., & Luyten, P. (2009). A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 13551381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fonagy, P., Target, M., & Gergely, G. (2000). Attachment and borderline personality disorder—A theory and some evidence. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A., & Hane, A. A. (2008). Studying the biology of human attachment. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 666697). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognitition and action: perfornance of children 3 1/2–7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53, 129153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, G., & Blair, C. (2004). How early experience matters in intellectual development in the case of poverty. Prevention Science, 5, 245252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, B. F., Chou, S. P., Goldstein, R. B., Huang, B., Stinson, F. S., Saha, T. D., et al. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 533545.Google Scholar
Gratz, K. L., Tull, M. T., Reynolds, E. K., Bagge, C. L., Latzman, R. D., Daughters, S. B., et al. (2009). Extending extant models of the pathogenesis of borderline personality disorder to childhood borderline personality symptoms: The roles of affective dysfunction, disinhibition, and self- and emotion-regulation deficits. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 12631291.Google Scholar
Grodzinsky, G. M., & Diamond, R. (1992). Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 427445.Google Scholar
Gunderson, J. G. (2009). Borderline personality disorder: Ontogeny of a diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 530539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2008). BPD's interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene–environment–developmental model. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 2241.Google Scholar
Guzder, J., Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., & Feldman, R. (1999). Psychological risk factors for borderline pathology in school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 206212.Google Scholar
Guzder, J., Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., & Marchessault, K. (1996). Risk factors for borderline pathology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 2633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, C., Adlam, A., Happe, F., Jackson, J., Taylor, A., & Caspi, A. (2000). Good test–retest reliability for standard and advanced false-belief tasks across a wide range of abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 483490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, C., Jaffee, S. R., Happe, F., Taylor, A., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2005). Origins of individual differences in theory of mind: From nature to nurture? Child Development, 76, 356370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Chen, H. N., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 579587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Skodol, A. E., Hamagami, F., & Brook, J. S. (2000). Age-related change in personality disorder trait levels between early adolescence and adulthood: A community-based longitudinal investigation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 265275.Google Scholar
Johnson, W., Krueger, R. F., Bouchard, T. J., & McGue, M. (2002). The personalities of twins: Just ordinary folks. Twin Research, 5, 125131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joyce, P. R., McHugh, P. C., McKenzie, J. M., Sullivan, P. F., Mulder, R. T., Luty, S. E., et al. (2006). A dopamine transporter polymorphism is a risk factor for borderline personality disorder in depressed patients. Psychological Medicine, 36, 807813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, P. H. (2005). Neurocognitive impairment as a moderator in the development of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 11731196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Aggen, S. H., Czajkowski, N., Roysamb, E., Tambs, K., Torgersen, S., et al. (2008). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for DSM-IV personality disorders: A multivariate twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 14381446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim-Cohen, J., Arseneault, L., Caspi, A., Tomas, M. P., Taylor, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2005). Validity of DSM-IV conduct disorder in 4 1/2 5-year-old children: A longitudinal epidemiological study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 11081117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenen, K. C., Moffitt, T. E., Roberts, A. L., Martin, L. T., Kubzansky, L., Harrington, H., et al. (2009). Childhood IQ and adult mental disorders: A test of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 5057.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995998.Google ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, M. F. (2008). Epidemiology of personality disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31, 395403, vi.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Lane, M. C., Loranger, A. W., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 553564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1993). Psychosocial characteristics of adolescents with a history of suicide attempt. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 6068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Klein, D. N. (1997). Axis II psychopathology as a function of Axis I disorders in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 17521759.Google Scholar
Lieb, K., Zanarini, M. C., Schmahl, C., Linehan, M. M., & Bohus, M. (2004). Borderline personality disorder. Lancet, 364, 453461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment for borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Linehan, M. M., Armstrong, H. E., Suarez, A., Allmon, D., & Heard, H. L. (1991). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 10601064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M., Comtois, K. A., Murray, A. M., Brown, M. Z., Gallop, R. J., Heard, H. L., et al. (2006). Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 757766.Google Scholar
Linehan, M. M., Dimeff, L. A., Reynolds, S. K., Comtois, K. A., Welch, S. S., Heagerty, P., et al. (2002). Dialectical behavior therapy versus comprehensive validation therapy plus 12-step for the treatment of opioid dependent women meeting criteria for borderline personality disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 67, 1326.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J., Jang, K. L., Jackson, D. N., & Vernon, P. A. (1993). Genetic and environmental contributions to dimensions of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 18261831.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Holmesa, B. M., Sasvari-Szekely, M., Ronai, Z., Nemoda, Z., & Pauls, D. (2007). Serotonin transporter polymorphism and borderline or antisocial traits among low-income young adults. Psychiatric Genetics, 17, 339343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., & Swan, S. A. (2009). Representations of the caregiver–child relationship and of the self, and emotion regulation in the narratives of young children whose mothers have borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 9931011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madsen, M., & Osler, M. (2009). Commentary: Strengths and limitations of the discordant twin-pair design in social epidemiology. Where do we go from here? International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 13221323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
March, J. S., Parker, J. D. A., Sullivan, K., Stallings, P., & Conners, C. K. (1997). The multidimensional anxiety scale for children (MASC): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 554565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGue, M. (1992). When assessing twin concordance, use the probandwise not the pairwise rate. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18, 171176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, A. L., Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Jacobson, C. M. (2008). Fact or fiction: Diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 969981.Google Scholar
Milne, B. J., Caspi, A., Crump, R., Poulton, R., Rutter, M., Sears, M. R., et al. (2009). The validity of the family history screen for assessing family history of mental disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 150B, 4149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milne, B. J., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Poulton, R., Rutter, M., & Moffitt, T. E. (2009). Predictive value of family history on severity of illness the case for depression, anxiety, alcohol dependence, and drug dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 738747.Google Scholar
Milne, B. J., Moffitt, T. E., Crump, R., Poulton, R., Rutter, M., Sears, M. R., et al. (2008). How should we construct psychiatric family history scores? A comparison of alternative approaches from the Dunedin Family Health History Study. Psychological Medicine, 38, 17931802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., Melchior, M., Goldberg, D., et al. (2007). Generalized anxiety disorder and depression: Childhood risk factors in a birth cohort followed to age 32. Psychological Medicine, 37, 441452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & E-Risk Team. (2002). Teen-aged mothers in contemporary Britain. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 727742.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2009). MPlus user's guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nemoda, Z., Lyons-Ruth, K., Szekely, A., Bertha, E., Faludi, G., & Sasvari-Szekely, M. (2010). Association between dopaminergic polymorphisms and borderline personality traits among at-risk young adults and psychiatric inpatients. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 11.Google Scholar
Nemoda, Z., Ronai, Z., Sasvari-Szekely, M., Pauls, D., Holmes, B. M., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2005). Serotonin transporter polymorphism associated with borderline and antisocial features. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Olds, D. L., Sadler, L., & Kitzman, H. (2007). Programs for parents of infants and toddlers: Recent evidence from randomized trials. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 355391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2005). The development of impulsivity and suicidality in borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 10911104.Google Scholar
Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., Guzder, J., Joseph, S., & Feldman, R. (1999). Neuropsychological factors associated with borderline pathology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 770774.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G., Caspi, A., Williams, B., Price, T. S., Danese, A., Sugden, K., et al. (2009). Protective effect of CRHR1 gene variants on the development of adult depression following childhood maltreatment replication and extension. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 978985.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavioral Research Methods, 40, 879891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reich, D. B., & Zanarini, M. C. (2001). Developmental aspects of borderline personality disorder. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 294301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 10711089.Google Scholar
Rothman, K. J., Greenland, S., & Walker, A. M. (1980). Concepts of interaction. American Journal of Epidemiology, 112, 467470.Google Scholar
Sanislow, C. A., Little, T. D., Ansell, E. B., Grilo, C. M., Daversa, M., Markowitz, J. C., et al. (2009). Ten-year stability and latent structure of the DSM-IV schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 507519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children: WIOSC-III and WPPSI-R supplement. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. (2006). Modern epidemiologic approaches to interaction: Applications to the study of genetic interaction. Washington DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Sharp, C., & Romero, C. (2007). Borderline personality disorder: A comparison between children and adults. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 71, 85114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 16471658.Google Scholar
Siever, L. J., Torgersen, S., Gunderson, J. G., Livesley, W. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2002). The borderline diagnosis III: Identifying endophenotypes for genetic studies. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 964968.Google Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., Widiger, T. A., Livesley, W. J., & Siever, L. J. (2002). The borderline diagnosis I: Psychopathology comorbidity, and personaltity structure. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 936950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Siever, L. J., Livesley, W. J., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., & Widiger, T. A. (2002). The borderline diagnosis II: Biology, genetics, and clinical course. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 951963.Google Scholar
Stanley, B., & Siever, L. J. (2010). The interpersonal dimension of borderline personality disorder: Toward a neuropeptide model. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 2439.Google Scholar
StataCorp. (2009). Stata/SE for Windows (Version 10.1). College Station, TX: Author.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A., & Waller, N. G. (2008). Exploring personality through test construction: development of the multidimensional personality questionnaire. In Boyle, G. J., Matthews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and testing. Personality measurment and assesment (Vol. 2, pp. 261292). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Torgersen, S., Czajkowski, N., Jacobson, K., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Roysamb, E., Neale, M. C., et al. (2008). Dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster B personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: A multivariate study. Psychological Medicine, 38, 16171625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S., Kringlen, E., & Cramer, V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 590596.Google Scholar
Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Oien, P. A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., et al. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 416425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trouton, A., Spinath, F. M., & Plomin, R. (2002). Twins Early Development Study (TEDS): A multivariate, longitudinal genetic investigation of language, cognition and behavior problems in childhood. Twin Research, 5, 444448.Google Scholar
van Os, J., Hanssen, M., Bak, M., Bijl, R. V., & Vollebergh, W. (2003). Do urbanicity and familial liability coparticipate in causing psychosis? American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 477482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed., United Kingdom). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Westen, D., Shedler, J., Durrett, C., Glass, S., & Martens, A. (2003). Personality diagnoses in adolescence: DSM-IV axis II diagnoses and an empirically derived alternative. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 952966.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Trull, T. J. (2007). Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder—Shifting to a dimensional model. American Psychologist, 62, 7183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, R. L. (2000). A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics, 56, 645646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winograd, G., Cohen, P., & Chen, H. N. (2008). Adolescent borderline symptoms in the community: Prognosis for functioning over 20 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 933941.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C. (2000). Childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Barison, L. K., Frankenburg, F. R., Reich, D. B., & Hudson, J. I. (2009). Family history study of the familial coaggregation of borderline personality disorder with Axis I and non-borderline dramatic cluster Axis II disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 23, 357369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., & Frankenburg, F. R. (2007). The essential nature of borderline psychopathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 518535.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Dubo, E. D., Sickel, A. E., Trikha, A., Levin, A., et al. (1998). Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 17331739.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2005). Psychosocial functioning of borderline patients and axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for six years. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 1929.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Reich, D. B., Fitzmaurice, G., Weinberg, I., & Gunderson, J. G. (2008). The 10-year course of physically self-destructive acts reported by borderline patients and axis II comparison subjects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 117, 177184.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Sickel, A. E., & Yong, L. (1996). The Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (DIPD-IV). Belmont, MA: McLean Hospital.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Yong, L., Raviola, G., Reich, D. B., Hennen, J., et al. (2004). Borderline psychopathology in the first-degree relatives of borderline and Axis II comparison probands. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 439447.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Jacoby, R. J., Frankenburg, F. R., Reich, D. B., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2009). The 10-year course of social security disability income reported by patients with borderline personality disorder and Axis II comparison subjects. Journal of Personality Disorders, 23, 346356.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Williams, A. A., Lewis, R. E., Reich, R. B., Vera, S. C., Marino, M. F., et al. (1997). Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 11011106.Google Scholar