Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-mp689 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T14:28:24.579Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Allostasis and metastasis: The yin and yang of childhood self-regulation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 August 2021

Samuel V. Wass Open the ORCID record for Samuel V. Wass [Opens in a new window]
Samuel V. Wass*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of East London, London, UK
*
Author for Correspondence: Samuel V. Wass; E-mail: s.v.wass@uel.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most research has studied self-regulation by presenting experimenter-controlled test stimuli and measuring change between baseline and stimulus. In the real world, however, stressors do not flash on and off in a predetermined sequence, and there is no experimenter controlling things. Rather, the real world is continuous and stressful events can occur through self-sustaining interactive chain reactions. Self-regulation is an active process through which we adaptively select which aspects of the social environment we attend to from one moment to the next. Here, we describe this dynamic interactive process by contrasting two mechanisms that underpin it: the “yin” and “yang” of self-regulation. The first mechanism is allostasis, the dynamical principle underlying self-regulation, through which we compensate for change to maintain homeostasis. This involves upregulating in some situations and downregulating in others. The second mechanism is metastasis, the dynamical principle underling dysregulation. Through metastasis, small initial perturbations can become progressively amplified over time. We contrast these processes at the individual level (i.e., examining moment-to-moment change in one child, considered independently) and also at the inter-personal level (i.e., examining change across a dyad, such as a parent–child dyad). Finally, we discuss practical implications of this approach in improving the self-regulation of emotion and cognition, in typical development and psychopathology.

Keywords

attention controlchildhoodemotion reactivityemotion regulationinfancyself-controlself-regulation
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , February 2023 , pp. 179 - 190
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amole, M. C., Cyranowski, J. M., Wright, A. G., & Swartz, H. A. (2017). Depression impacts the physiological responsiveness of mother–daughter dyads during social interaction. Depression and Anxiety, 34, 118–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, D. R., Alwitt, L. F., Lorch, E. P., & Levin, S. R. (1979). Watching children watch television. In Hale, G. A., & Lewis, M. (Eds.), Attention and cognitive development (pp. 331–361). Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, D. R., & Lorch, E. P. (1983). Looking at television: Action or reaction? In Bryant, J. & Anderson, D. R. (Eds.), Children's understanding of television: Research on attention and comprehension (pp. 1–33). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: Adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 403–450. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atzil, S., Gao, W., Fradkin, I., & Barrett, L. F. (2018). Growing a social brain. Nature Human Behaviour, 1.Google ScholarPubMed
Baker, J. K., Fenning, R. M., Howland, M. A., & Huynh, D. (2019). Parental criticism and behavior problems in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 23, 1249–1261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., Markese, S., Buck, K., Chen, H., Cohen, P., … Feldstein, S. (2010). The origins of 12-month attachment: A microanalysis of 4-month mother–infant interaction. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 3–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). Integrative physiology: Homeostasis, allostasis, and the orchestration of systemic physiology. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 433–452). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyens, I., Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2018). Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 9875–9881.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H., & Manian, N. (2013). Maternal responsiveness and sensitivity re-considered: Some is more. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 957–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Suess, P. E. (2000). Child and mother cardiac vagal tone: Continuity, stability, and concordance across the first 5 years. Developmental Psychology, 36, 54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brazelton, T. B. (1983). Precursors for the development of emotions in early infancy. In Emotions in early development (pp. 35–55). Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of self-regulation: A multidisciplinary review and integrative conceptual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchanan, T. W., Bagley, S. L., Stansfield, R. B., & Preston, S. D. (2012). The empathic, physiological resonance of stress. Social Neuroscience, 7, 191–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, K. A., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1998). Fear and anger regulation in infancy: Effects on the temporal dynamics of affective expression. Child Development, 69, 359–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, E. A. (2011). Temporal interpersonal emotion systems: The “TIES” that form relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 367–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (2000). Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Calderon, D., Kilinc, M., Maritan, A., Banavar, J., & Pfaff, D. (2016). Generalized CNS arousal: An elementary force within the vertebrate nervous system. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 167–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, W. B. (1929). Organization for physiological homeostasis. Physiological Reviews, 9, 399–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capra, F. (2010). The Tao of physics: An exploration of the parallels between modern physics and eastern mysticism. Shambhala Publications.Google Scholar
Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Milham, M. P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: Beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 117–123. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatfield, C. (2004). The analysis of time series: JSTOR.Google Scholar
Chow, S.-M. (2019). Practical tools and guidelines for exploring and fitting linear and nonlinear dynamical systems models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 54, 690–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christiansen, H., Oades, R. D., Psychogiou, L., Hauffa, B. P., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2010). Does the cortisol response to stress mediate the link between expressed emotion and oppositional behavior in attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder (ADHD)? Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, D. M. (1986). A cognitive approach to panic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 461–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coco, M. I., Mønster, D., Leonardi, G., Dale, R., & Wallot, S. (2020). Unidimensional and Multidimensional Methods for Recurrence Quantification Analysis with CRQA. arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.01954.Google Scholar
Cofer, C. N., & Appley, M. H. (1964). Motivation: Theory and research. John Wiley.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Bendezú, J. J., Ram, N., & Chow, S.-M. (2017). Dynamical systems modeling of early childhood self-regulation. Emotion, 17, 684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Lougheed, J. P., Chow, S.-M., & Ram, N. (2020). Development of emotion regulation dynamics across early childhood: A multiple time-scale approach. Affective Science, 1, 28–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Ram, N., & English, M. S. (2019a). Toward a unifying model of self-regulation: A developmental approach. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 91–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Ramsook, K. A., & Ram, N. (2019b). Emotion dysregulation as a dynamic process. Development and Psychopathology, 31, 1191–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs-Ronto, L. A., Olson, S. L., Lunkenheimer, E. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2009). Interactions between maternal parenting and children's early disruptive behavior: Bidirectional associations across the transition from preschool to school entry. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Barbaro, K. (2019). Automated sensing of daily activity: A new lens into development. Developmental Psychobiology, 61, 444–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dewey, J. (1896). The reflex arc concept in psychology. Psychological Review, 3, 357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezecache, G., Jacob, P., & Grezes, J. (2015). Emotional contagion: Its scope and limits. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19, 297–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doherty-Sneddon, G., Riby, D. M., & Whittle, L. (2012). Gaze aversion as a cognitive load management strategy in autism spectrum disorder and Williams syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 420–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudeney, J., Sharpe, L., & Hunt, C. (2015). Attentional bias towards threatening stimuli in children with anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 66–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edelman, S. (2016). The minority report: Some common assumptions to reconsider in the modelling of the brain and behaviour. Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 28, 751–776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehring, T., Frank, S., & Ehlers, A. (2008). The role of rumination and reduced concreteness in the maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 488–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R. (2007). Parent–infant synchrony and the construction of shared timing; physiological precursors, developmental outcomes, and risk conditions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 329–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R., Dollberg, D., & Nadam, R. (2011). The expression and regulation of anger in toddlers: Relations to maternal behavior and mental representations. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 310–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R., Granat, A., Pariente, C., Kanety, H., Kuint, J., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2009). Maternal depression and anxiety across the postpartum year and infant social engagement, fear regulation, and stress reactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 919–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, T. M. (1981). Infant gaze aversion and heart rate during face-to-face interactions. Infant Behavior and Development, 4, 307–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C., Yando, R., & Bendell, D. (2003). Pregnancy anxiety and comorbid depression and anger: Effects on the fetus and neonate. Depression and Anxiety, 17, 140–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, T. M., Healy, B. T., Goldstein, S., & Guthertz, M. (1990). Behavior-state matching and synchrony in mother-infant interactions of nondepressed versus depressed dyads. Developmental Psychology, 26, 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, D. W., & Maddi, S. R. (1961). Functions of varied experience.Google Scholar
Fogel, A. (1993). Developing through relationships. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, B. H. (2007). An autonomic flexibility–neurovisceral integration model of anxiety and cardiac vagal tone. Biological Psychology, 74, 185–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gagne, J. R., Van Hulle, C. A., Aksan, N., Essex, M. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2011). Deriving childhood temperament measures from emotion-eliciting behavioral episodes: Scale construction and initial validation. Psychological Assessment, 23, 337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, J. M., & Karmel, B. Z. (1984). Arousal effects on visual preferences in neonates. Developmental Psychology, 20, 374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, J. M., & Karmel, B. Z. (1995). Development of arousal-modulated visual preferences in early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 31, 473–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, J. M., Karmel, B. Z., & Flory, M. J. (2003). Arousal modulation of neonatal visual attention: Implications for development. Perspectives on Fundamental Processes in Intellectual Functioning, 2, 125–153.Google Scholar
Gardner, J. M., Karmel, B. Z., & Magnano, C. L. (1992). Arousal/visual preference interactions in high-risk neonates. Developmental Psychology, 28, 821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage.Google Scholar
Geva, R., Gardner, J. M., & Karmel, B. Z. (1999). Feeding-based arousal effects on visual recognition memory in early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35, 640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, M. H., Schwade, J., Briesch, J., & Syal, S. (2010). Learning while babbling: Prelinguistic object-directed vocalizations indicate a readiness to learn. Infancy, 15, 362–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granat, A., Gadassi, R., Gilboa-Schechtman, E., & Feldman, R. (2017). Maternal depression and anxiety, social synchrony, and infant regulation of negative and positive emotions. Emotion, 17, 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granger, C. W. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 37(3), 424–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, C. G. (1998). Claude Bernard and the constancy of the internal environment. The Neuroscientist, 4, 380–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ham, J., & Tronick, E. (2009). Relational psychophysiology: Lessons from mother–infant physiology research on dyadically expanded states of consciousness. Psychotherapy Research, 19, 619–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harold, G. T., Leve, L. D., Barrett, D., Elam, K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., … Thapar, A. (2013). Biological and rearing mother influences on child ADHD symptoms: Revisiting the developmental interface between nature and nurture. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1038–1046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 96–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyes, C. (2018). Empathy is not in our genes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 95, 499–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holleman, G. A., Hooge, I. T., Kemner, C., & Hessels, R. S. (2020). The “real-world approach” and Its problems: A critique of the term ecological validity. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffe, J., Beebe, B., Feldstein, S., Crown, C. L., Jasnow, M. D., Rochat, P., & Stern, D. N. (2001). Rhythms of dialogue in infancy: Coordinated timing in development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, I, 149.Google Scholar
Kaartinen, M., Puura, K., Mäkelä, T., Rannisto, M., Lemponen, R., Helminen, M., … Hietanen, J. K. (2012). Autonomic arousal to direct gaze correlates with social impairments among children with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1917–1927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahle, S., Miller, J. G., Helm, J. L., & Hastings, P. D. (2018). Linking autonomic physiology and emotion regulation in preschoolers: The role of reactivity and recovery. Developmental Psychobiology, 60(7), 775–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kingstone, A., Smilek, D., & Eastwood, J. D. (2008). Cognitive ethology: A new approach for studying human cognition. British Journal of Psychology, 99, 317–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolodny, O., & Edelman, S. (2015). The problem of multimodal concurrent serial order in behavior. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 56, 252–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. S., & Turvey, M. T. (1980). 1 on the concept of coordinative structures as dissipative structures: I. Theoretical lines of convergence. In Advances in psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 3–47). Elsevier.Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Su, J., Calkins, S. D., Supple, A. J., & O'Brien, M. (2016). Pathways by which mothers’ physiological arousal and regulation while caregiving predict sensitivity to infant distress. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levenson, R. W. (1988). Emotion and the autonomic nervous system: A prospectus for research on autonomic specificity. Social Psychophysiology: Theory and Clinical Applications.Google Scholar
Levenson, R. W., & Ruef, A. M. (1992). Empathy: A physiological substrate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M. D. (2005). Bridging emotion theory and neurobiology through dynamic systems modeling. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 169–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maitha, C., Goode, J. C., Maulucci, D. P., Lasassmeh, S., Yu, C., Smith, L. B., … Borjon, J. I. (2020). An open-source, wireless vest for measuring autonomic function in infants. Behavior Research Methods, 52, 2324–2337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, G. M. (2018). Investigating Dyadic Social Coordination and Infant Attention in Typical and Atypical Development.Google Scholar
Mason, G. M., Kirkpatrick, F., Schwade, J. A., & Goldstein, M. H. (2019). The role of dyadic coordination in organizing visual attention in 5-month-Old infants. Infancy, 24, 162–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCall, J. G., Al-Hasani, R., Siuda, E. R., Hong, D. Y., Norris, A. J., Ford, C. P., & Bruchas, M. R. (2015). CRH engagement of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system mediates stress-induced anxiety. Neuron, 87, 605–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 2–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMahon, T. P., & Naragon-Gainey, K. (2018). The moderating effect of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies on reappraisal: A daily diary study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 42, 552–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morales, S., Ram, N., Buss, K. A., Cole, P. M., Helm, J. L., & Chow, S. M. (2018). Age-related changes in the dynamics of fear-related regulation in early childhood. Developmental Science, 21, e12633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, L. (1985). Emotional regulations of interactions between two-month-olds and their mothers. Social Perception in Infants, 177–197.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual research review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 361–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nuske, H. J., Vivanti, G., & Dissanayake, C. (2015). No evidence of emotional dysregulation or aversion to mutual gaze in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder: An eye-tracking pupillometry study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 3433–3445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osborne-Crowley, K. (2020). Social cognition in the real world: Reconnecting the study of social cognition with social reality. Review of General Psychology, 24, 144–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Overbeek, G., Creasey, N., Wesarg, C., Huijzer-Engbrenghof, M., & Spencer, H. (2020). When mummy and daddy get under your skin: A new look at how parenting affects children's DNA methylation, stress reactivity, and disruptive behavior. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2020, 25–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pempek, T. A., Kirkorian, H. L., Richards, J. E., Anderson, D. R., Lund, A. F., & Stevens, M. (2010). Video comprehensibility and attention in very young children. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1283–1293. doi:10.1037/a0020614CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pérez-Edgar, K. (2018). Attention mechanisms in behavioral inhibition: Exploring and exploiting the environment. In Behavioral inhibition (pp. 237–261). Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., McDermott, J. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion, 10, 349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfaff, D. (2018). How brain arousal mechanisms work: Paths toward consciousness (Vol. 1). Canbridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., … Kaufman, J. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 291–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabinovich, M. I., Muezzinoglu, M. K., Strigo, I., & Bystritsky, A. (2010). Dynamical principles of emotion-cognition interaction: Mathematical images of mental disorders. PLoS One, 5, e12547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsay, D. S., & Woods, S. C. (2014). Clarifying the roles of homeostasis and allostasis in physiological regulation. Psychological Review, 121, 225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayson, H., Bonaiuto, J. J., Ferrari, P. F., Chakrabarti, B., & Murray, L. (2019). Building blocks of joint attention: Early sensitivity to having one's own gaze followed. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 100631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reader, S. M. (2015). Causes of individual differences in animal exploration and search. Topics in Cognitive Science, 7, 451–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, J. E. (1987). Infant visual sustained attention and respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Child Development, 58(2), 488–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, J. E. (2010). The development of attention to simple and complex visual stimuli in infants: Behavioral and psychophysiological measures. Developmental Review, 30, 203–219. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.03.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, J. E., & Anderson, D. R. (2004). Attentional inertia in children's extended looking at television. In Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 32, pp. 163–212).Google Scholar
Risko, E. F., Richardson, D. C., & Kingstone, A. (2016). Breaking the fourth wall of cognitive science: Real-world social attention and the dual function of gaze. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 70–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossi, V., & Pourtois, G. (2017). Someone's lurking in the dark: The role of state anxiety on attention deployment to threat-related stimuli. Biological Psychology, 122, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roy, A. K., Dennis, T. A., & Warner, C. M. (2015). A critical review of attentional threat bias and its role in the treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29, 171–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salkovskis, P. M. (1991). The importance of behaviour in the maintenance of anxiety and panic: A cognitive account. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 19, 6–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salkovskis, P. M. (1997). Frontiers of cognitive therapy. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. (2009). The transactional model. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sameroff, A. J. (1983). Development systems: Contexts and evolution. In Mussen, P. H. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Formerly Carmichael's manual of child psychology.Google Scholar
Samuels, E. R., & Szabadi, E. (2008). Functional neuroanatomy of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus: Its roles in the regulation of arousal and autonomic function part I: Principles of functional organisation. Current Neuropharmacology, 6, 235–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M. (2015). Stress and the brain: Individual variability and the inverted-U. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 1344–1346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selye, H. (1951). The physiology and pathology of exposure to stress. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 33-A, 818–819.Google Scholar
Shih, E. W., Quiñones-Camacho, L. E., Karan, A., & Davis, E. L. (2018). Physiological contagion in parent-child dyads during an emotional challenge. Social Development.Google Scholar
Shockley, K., Butwill, M., Zbilut, J. P., & Webber, C. L. Jr (2002). Cross recurrence quantification of coupled oscillators. Physics Letters A, 305, 59–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, T., & Klimecki, O. M. (2014). Empathy and compassion. Current Biology, 24, R875–R878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slagt, M., Dubas, J. S., van Aken, M. A., Ellis, B. J., & Deković, M. (2017). Children's differential susceptibility to parenting: An experimental test of “for better and for worse.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 154, 78–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, C. G., Jones, E. J. H., Charman, T., C, K., Mirza, F. U., & Wass, S. V. (in press). Anxious parents show higher physiological synchrony with their infants. Psychological Medicine, 1–11.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Wiersema, J. R., van der Meere, J. J., & Roeyers, H. (2010). Context-dependent dynamic processes in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Differentiating common and unique effects of state regulation deficits and delay aversion. Neuropsychol Rev, 20, 86–102. doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9115-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spivey, M. J., & Dale, R. (2006). Continuous dynamics in real-time cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 207–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterling, P. (2012). Allostasis: A model of predictive regulation. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 5–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stifter, C. A., & Braungart, J. M. (1995). The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy: Function and development. Developmental Psychology, 31, 448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sugihara, G., May, R., Ye, H., Hsieh, C.-H., Deyle, E., Fogarty, M., & Munch, S. (2012). Detecting causality in complex ecosystems. Science, 338, 496–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, E. (1999). Developmental neuropsychopathology of attention deficit and impulsiveness. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 607–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thayer, J. F., Hansen, A. L., Saus-Rose, E., & Johnsen, B. H. (2009). Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: The neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 141–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61, 201–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thelen, E., Schöner, G., Scheier, C., & Smith, L. B. (2001). The dynamics of embodiment: A field theory of infant perseverative reaching. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 1–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. MA, USA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Thorson, K. R., West, T. V., & Mendes, W. B. (2018). Measuring physiological influence in dyads: A guide to designing, implementing, and analyzing dyadic physiological studies. Psychological Methods, 23, 595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tronick, E. (1982). Social interchange in infancy: Affect, cognition, and communication. Univ Park Press.Google Scholar
Tronick, E. (2007). The neurobehavioral and social-emotional development of infants and children. WW Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Ursache, A., Blair, C., Stifter, C., & Voegtline, K. (2013). Emotional reactivity and regulation in infancy interact to predict executive functioning in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 49, 127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van der Meere, J., & Sergeant, J. (1988). Controlled processing and vigilance in hyperactivity: Time will tell. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 641–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wan, M. W., Green, J., & Scott, J. (2019). A systematic review of parent–infant interaction in infants at risk of autism. Autism, 23, 811–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wass, S. V. (2018). How orchids concentrate? The relationship between physiological stress reactivity and cognitive performance during infancy and early childhood. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 90, 34–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wass, S. V. (2020). The origins of effortful control: how early development within arousal/regulatory systems influences cognitive and affective control. https://psyarxiv.com/n6fjm/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wass, S. V., Clackson, K., & Leong, V. (2018). Increases in arousal are more long-lasting than decreases in arousal: On homeostatic failures during emotion regulation in infancy. Infancy, 23(5), 628–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wass, S. V., Smith, C. G., Clackson, K., Gibb, C., Eitzenberger, J., & Mirza, F. U. (2019a). Parents mimic and influence their infant's autonomic state through dynamic affective state matching. Current Biology, 29, 2415–2422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wass, S. V., Smith, C. G., Clackson, K., & Mirza, F. U. (2021). In infancy, it's the extremes of arousal that are “sticky”: Naturalistic data challenge purely homeostatic approaches to studying self-regulation. Developmental Science, 24(3), e13059.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wass, S. V., Smith, C. G., Daubney, K. R., Suata, Z. M., Clackson, K., Begum, A., … Mirza, F. U. (2019b). Influences of environmental stressors on autonomic function in 12-month-old infants: Understanding early common pathways to atypical emotion regulation and cognitive performance. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(12), 1323–1333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterhouse, B. D., & Navarra, R. L. (2019). The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system and sensory signal processing: A historical review and current perspectives. Brain Research, 1709, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, S. F., West, T. V., Karnilowicz, H. R., & Mendes, W. B. (2017). Affect contagion between mothers and infants: Examining valence and touch. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 1043.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, S. F., West, T. V., & Mendes, W. B. (2014). Stress contagion: Physiological covariation between mothers and infants. Psychological Science, 25, 934–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wichers, M., Wigman, J., & Myin-Germeys, I. (2015). Micro-level affect dynamics in psychopathology viewed from complex dynamical system theory. Emotion Review, 7, 362–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J.-P., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in My insula: The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron, 40, 655–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, T. L., de Barbaro, K., Abney, D. H., & Cox, R. F. (2020). Finding structure in time: Visualizing and analyzing behavioral time series. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1457. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01457CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking. Wiley Online Library.Google ScholarPubMed