¹ I use the word “member” rather than citizen to suggest a sense of belonging that transcends legal definition. Citizenship is part of membership, but does not necessarily include the full range of characteristics demanded of members. Joppke, Christian, Citizenship and Immigration (Malden, Mass.: Polity Press, 2010), vii, 3Google Scholar.

² Although recent work on the transnational migrant has revealed a tendency to self-identify as a member of multiple political communities, the nation of origin does not necessarily share this view. See Ong, Aihwa, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

³ The classic study of assimilation and national identity in the United States is Glazer, Nathan and Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963)Google Scholar. On the historiography of assimilation, see Kazal, Russell A., “Reinventing Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept in American Ethnic History,” American Historical Review 100, 2 (1995): 437–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ See, for example, O'Donnell, Krista, Bridenthal, Renate, and Reagin, Nancy, eds., The Heimat Abroad: The Boundaries of Germanness (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Eckstein, Susan and Najam, Adil, eds., How Immigrants Impact Their Homelands (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ The term “diaspora” has traditionally connoted a people in exile who did not assimilate and viewed themselves as sojourners rather than settlers. Today, scholars use the term more broadly to characterize groups with a strong collective ethno-national identity tied to a foreign state. Cohen, Robin, Global Diasporas: An Introduction (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, ix. Nobuko Adachi applies this more inclusive definition to frame Japanese emigrants and their descendants as a diaspora. See Adachi, Nobuko, “Theorizing Japanese Diaspora,” in Adachi, Nobuko, ed., Japanese Diaspora: Unsung Pasts, Conflicting Presents, Uncertain Futures (New York: Routledge, 2006), 1–22Google Scholar.

⁶ On the representation of the nation as an imagined community, see Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983)Google Scholar.

⁷ Hiroshi, Saitō, Gaikokujin ni natta Nihonjin (Tokyo: Saimuru shuppankai, 1978)Google Scholar, 7; Spickard, Paul, Japanese Americans: The Formation and Transformation of an Ethnic Group, 2d ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2009)Google Scholar, 58; Endoh, Toake, Exporting Japan: Politics of Emigration Toward Latin America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 163CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ See, for example, Takeshi, Komagome, Shokuminchi teikoku Nihon no bunka tōgō (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1996)Google Scholar; Eiji, Oguma, “Nihonjin” no kyōkai: Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chōsen, shokuminchi shihai kara fukki undō made (Tokyo: Shin'yōsha, 1998)Google Scholar; Takeshi, Ishida, Kioku to bōkyaku no seijigaku: Dōka seisaku, sensō sekinin, shūgōteki kioku (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 2000)Google Scholar; Ching, Leo T. S., Becoming “Japanese”: Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)Google Scholar; and Caprio, Mark E., Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁹ On the assimilation of Japanese in the Americas, see Ichioka, Yuji, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885–1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Lone, Stewart, The Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908–1940: Between Samurai and Carnival (New York: Palgrave, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Masterson, Daniel, with Funada-Classen, Sayaka, The Japanese in Latin America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Azuma, Eiichiro, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ichioka, Yuji, Before Internment: Essays in Prewar Japanese American History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Spickard, Japanese Americans; and Robinson, Greg, After Camp: Portraits in Midcentury Japanese American Life and Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ See, for example, Weiner, Michael A., ed., Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (New York: Routledge, 1997)Google Scholar; Lie, John, Multiethnic Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Takashi, Maeyama, Ibunka sesshoku to aidenteitei- (Tokyo: Ochanomizu shobō, 2001)Google Scholar.

¹¹ Morris-Suzuki, Tessa, Re-Inventing Japan: Time, Space, Nation (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1998)Google Scholar; Eiji, Oguma, A Genealogy of “Japanese” Self-Images, Askew, David, trans. (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Doak, Kevin M., A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan: Placing the People (Boston: Brill, 2007)Google Scholar.

¹² Befu, Harumi, “Japanese Transnational Migration in Time and Space,” in Adachi, Nobuko, ed., Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World (Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2010), 31–49Google Scholar.

¹³ Oguma, Genealogy of Japanese Self-Images; Caprio, Japanese Assimilation Policies; Uchida, Jun, Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2011), 76–84Google Scholar.

¹⁴ On the history of Japanese ethnology, see van Bremen, Jan and Shimizu, Akitoshi, eds., Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999)Google Scholar; Shimizu, Akitoshi and van Bremen, Jan, eds., Wartime Anthropology in Asia and the Pacific (Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology, 2003)Google Scholar; Robertson, Jennifer, ed., A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tōru, Sakano, Nihon to jinruigakusha: 1884–1952-nen (Tokyo: Keisō shobō, 2005)Google Scholar; and Katsuhiko, Yamaji, ed., Nihon no jinruigaku: Shokuminchi shugi, ibunka kenkyū, gakujutsu chōsa no rekishi (Nishinomiya: Kansai Gakuin Daigaku, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Tetsurō, Watsuji, Watsuji Tetsurō zenshū, vol. 4 (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1961), 290Google Scholar; Seinosuke, Tanaka, Nihonjin no shin hatten chi: Nanbei Burajiru (Tokyo: Kaigai hattensha, 1919), 2Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Kunimoto, Iyo, “Japanese Migration to Latin America,” in Stallings, Barbara and Székely, Gabriel, eds., Japan, the United States, and Latin America: Toward a Trilateral Relationship in the Western Hemisphere (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 99–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ On “whiteness” in Brazil, see Skidmore, Thomas E., Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Stepan, Nancy Leys, “The Hour of Eugenics”: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991)Google Scholar; Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz, The Spectacle of the Races: Scientists, Institutions, and the Race Question in Brazil, 1870–1930, Guyer, Leland, trans. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1999)Google Scholar; and Dávila, Jerry, Diploma of Whiteness: Race and Social Policy in Brazil, 1917–1945 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Calderón, Francisco Garcia, Latin America: Its Rise and Progress, Miall, Bernard, trans. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913), 324–31Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Lesser, Jeffrey, Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 81–113, 147–65Google Scholar.

²⁰ Kumao, Takaoka, “Burajiru imin kenkyū,” in senta-, Nihon tosho, ed., Nikkei imin shiryō shū Nanbei hen, vol. 9 (Tokyo: Nihon tosho senta-, 1998), 87–89, 281–82Google Scholar; Ryōji, Noda, “Nanbei jijō,” in senta-, Nihon tosho, ed., Nikkei imin shiryō shū Nanbei hen, vol. 21 (Tokyo: Nihon tosho senta-, 1998), 261–303Google Scholar.

²¹ Ikutarō, Aoyagi, Burajiru ni okeru Nihonjin hatten shi (Tokyo: Burajiru ni okeru Nihonjin hattenshi kankō iinkai, 1941), 170–71, 270Google Scholar.

²² Shungorō, Wako, Bauru kannai no hōjin (San Pauro: Wako Shungorō, 1939), 1–11Google Scholar.

²³ Aoyagi, Burajiru ni okeru Nihonjin, 331; Wako, Bauru kannai no hōjin, 4.

²⁴ Hiroshi, Saitō, “Kokusaijin no senku to shite Nikkei imin,” in Hiroshi, Saitō, Hiroshi, Komai, and Fumio, Nakagawa, eds., Burajiru shakai to Nihon (Tokyo: Nihon kokusai mondai kenkyūsho, 1978), 20–52, here 24Google Scholar.

²⁵ For recent scholarship on emigrants from Okinawa, see Nakasone, Ronald Y., Okinawan Diaspora (Honolulu: University of Hawaìi Press, 2002)Google Scholar. During the Meiji period, Japanese citizenship followed the principle of jus sanguinis, whereby all children born to Japanese parents, irrespective of place, were regarded as Japanese citizens. In 1924, in response to pressure from emigrants, the Japanese Diet made Japanese citizenship for foreign-born children of Japanese parents electable rather than automatic. According to the jus soli principle that governed citizenship in the nations of North America and South America, second-generation Japanese diaspora were citizens of the land of their birth.

²⁶ On the politics of terminology, see Tomoko Sakuma, “Language, Culture and Ethnicity: Interplay of Ideologies within a Japanese Community in Brazil,” Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2011.

²⁷ Koshy, Susan, Sexual Naturalization: Asian Americans and Miscegenation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

²⁸ Freyre, Gilberto, The Masters and the Slaves: A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization, Putnam, Samuel, trans. (New York: Knopf, 1946)Google Scholar; Freyre, Gilberto, The Mansions and the Shanties: The Making of Modern Brazil, de Onis, Harriet, ed. and trans. (New York: Knopf, 1968)Google Scholar; Freyre, Gilberto, Order and Progress: Brazil from Monarchy to Republic, Horton, Rod W., ed. and trans. (New York: Knopf, 1970)Google Scholar.

²⁹ Wako, Bauru kannai no hōjin, 7–11; Zenpati, Ando, “Dōka no konponteki na mondai,” Bunka: Revista Cultural Liberaria 1, 1 (1938): 5–8Google Scholar.

³⁰ de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros, Centro, Burajiru Nikkeijin no ishiki chōsa (São Paulo: Centro de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros, 1992), 13Google Scholar.

³¹ Maeyama, Takashi, “Ethnicity, Secret Societies, and Associations: The Japanese in Brazil,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 21, 4 (1979): 589–610CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Reichl, Christopher A., “Stages in the Historical Process of Ethnicity: The Japanese in Brazil, 1908–1988,” Ethnohistory 42, 1 (1995): 31–62, here 42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³² Approximately six thousand Japanese emigrants and their descendants in Brazil (less than 3 percent of all Japanese diaspora in the nation) were imprisoned during World War II. Endoh, Exporting Japan, 34. On the internment of Japanese diaspora in the Americas, see Gardiner, C. Harvey, Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981)Google Scholar; and Robinson, Greg, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³³ Yasuo, Fujisaki, Dekasegi Nikkei gaikokujin rōdōsha (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 1991), 208Google Scholar.

³⁴ Lesser, Jeffrey, “From Japanese to Nikkei and Back: Integration Strategies of Japanese Immigrants and Their Descendants in Brazil,” in Anderson, Wanni and Lee, Robert G., eds., Displacements and Diasporas (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 112–21Google Scholar; Shoji, Rafael, “The Failed Prophecy of Shinto Nationalism and the Rise of Japanese Brazilian Catholicism,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 35, 1 (2008): 13–38Google Scholar.

³⁵ Tomomi, Ishikawa, Susumu, Miyao, Shōzō, Motoyama, Kōichi, Mori, Hiroko, Yagishita, Chiyoko, Mita, and Hiroaki, Maruyama, “Burajiru Nihon imin kenkyū ni okeru ‘kūhaku’ to ‘danzetsu,’” in Hiroaki, Maruyama, ed., Burajiru no Nihon imin: Hyaku-nen no kiseki (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 2010), 67–80, 68Google Scholar.

³⁶ Hideo, Fujimoto, Izumi Seiichi den: Andesu kara Saishūtō e (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1994)Google Scholar.

³⁷ Doak, Kevin M., “What Is a Nation and Who Belongs? National Narratives and the Ethnic Imagination in Twentieth-Century Japan,” American Historical Review 102, 2 (1997): 283–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁸ For a review of American cultural anthropology dating from the prewar period, see Shōei, Mishima, “Beikoku bunka jinruigaku annai ki,” Minzokugaku kenkyū 4, 4 (1938): 719–46Google Scholar.

³⁹ Seiichi, Izumi, “Tokyo shi shimin no iminzoku ni taisuru taido,” in kagakukai, Nihon jinbun, ed., Shakaiteki kinchō no kenkyū (Tokyo: Yuikaku, 1953), 423–44Google Scholar; and Seiichi, Izumi, “Aru bunka hen'yō no monogurafu,” in Izumi Seiichi chosakushū, vol. 2 (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1972), 258–388Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Stoetzel, Jean, Without the Chrysanthemum and the Sword: A Study of the Attitudes of Youth in Post-War Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), 15Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Barshay, Andrew E., The Social Sciences in Modern Japan: The Marxian and Modernist Traditions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), ixGoogle Scholar.

⁴² Yanaihara, Tadao, Introduction to the Short History of Modern Japan, Kawata, Tadashi, trans. (Tokyo: Misuzu shobō, 1963), 10Google Scholar.

⁴³ E. Ishida, “Japanese Anthropology,” Speech delivered at the Harvard Peabody Museum, 10 Feb. 1953, 8. Draft copy held in Tozzer Library, Harvard University.

⁴⁴ Seiichi, Izumi, Cultural Anthropology in Japan (Tokyo: Tokyo Electrical Engineering College Press, 1967), iGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁵ Zenpachi, Andō, “Zaihaku hōjin shakai to imin mondai,” Chūō kōron 66, 6 (1951): 86–99Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Ishida, “Japanese Anthropology,” 13.

⁴⁷ Izumi, Seiichi, “Acculturation Among the Japanese Agricultural Immigrants in Brazil,” in United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, ed., Proceedings of the World Population Conference, 1954, vol. II (New York: United Nations, 1955), 467–76, here 475Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Seiichi, Izumi and Hiroshi, Saitō, Amazon: Sono fudo to Nihonjin (Tokyo: Kokon shoin, 1954)Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Seiichi, Izumi, “Atogaki,” in Hiroshi, Saitō, Burajiru no Nihonjin (Tokyo: Maruzen kabushiki kaisha, 1960), 330–35Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Izumi and Saitō, Amazon, 119.

⁵¹ Seiichi, Izumi, “Joron,” in Seiichi, Izumi, ed., Imin (Tokyo: Kokon shoten, 1957), 1–4Google Scholar.

⁵² Imin also included a comparative study of a Polish emigrant community in Brazil: Hiroshi, Saitō, “Po-rando imin no buraku: Parana-shū Kontenda no jirei,” in Seiichi, Izumi, ed., Imin (Tokyo: Kokon shoten, 1957), 657–728Google Scholar.

⁵³ Morio, Ōno, “Imin to bunka,” in Morio, Ōno, ed., Ratenteki Nihonjin Burajirujin Nisei no hatsugen (Tokyo: Nihon hōsō shuppan kyōkai, 1969), 9–38, here 17Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Matthews, Fred, Quest for an American Sociology: Robert E. Park and the Chicago School (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1977), 131CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁵ Park, Robert E., Introduction to the Science of Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), 735Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Rather than upholding Freyre's vision of Brazil, most scholars associated with the project came to dispute the existence of “racial democracy.” Maio, Marcos Chor, “Florestan Fernandes, Oracy Nogueira, and the UNESCO Project on Race Relations in São Paulo,” Galli, Rosemary, trans., Latin American Perspectives 38, 3 (2011): 136–49Google Scholar. For a recent re-visitation of the racial democracy hypothesis and contemporary perspectives on race in Brazil, see Owensby, Brian, “Toward a History of Brazil's ‘Cordial Racism’: Race beyond Liberalism,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 47, 2 (2005): 318–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Izumi, “Acculturation,” 475; Izumi Seiichi, “Burajiru no rokkagetsu,” in Izumi Seiichi, Izumi Seiichi chosakushū, vol. 3, 226.

⁵⁸ Benedict, Ruth, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946)Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Shima Kiyoshi, “Imin fune no chōsa,” in Izumi, ed., Imin, 535–86, here 571; Kyūyō, Kishimoto, Hiroi tenchi e: Burajiru ni katsuyaku suru Nihonjin monogatari (Tokyo: Amazonkai shuppanbu, 1960), 384Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Kaju, Nakamura, Nanbei wa maneku: Hirakeyuku shintenchi no dōhō (Tokyo: Shōheidō, 1953), 206Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Izumi Seiichi, “Imin no jinruigakuteki kenkyū hōhō ni kansuru ichi shiron,” in Izumi, Izumi Seiichi chosakushū, vol. 2, 242.

⁶² For a comparison of the responses of German and Japanese intellectuals to the wartime past, see Conrad, Sebastian, The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century, Nothnagle, Alan, trans. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁶³ Beardsley, Richard K. and Takashi, Nakano, Japanese Sociology and Social Anthropology: A Guide to Japanese Reference and Research Materials (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970), ivGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ Izumi, “Acculturation,” 475.

⁶⁵ Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 110Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Takeshi, Ishida, Nihon no shakai kagaku (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku shuppankai, 1984), 125–60Google Scholar; Doak, Kevin M., “Building National Identity through Ethnicity: Ethnology in Wartime Japan and After,” Journal of Japanese Studies 27, 1 (2001): 1–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁶⁷ On the contemporary meanings of “Nikkei,” see Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, “Pathways to Power: Comparative Perspectives on the Emergence of Nikkei Ethnic Political Traditions,” in Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, Kikumura-Yano, Akemi, and Hirabayashi, James A., eds., New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), 159–78Google Scholar; Lesser, Jeffrey, “Japanese, Brazilians, Nikkei: A Short History of Identity Building and Homemaking,” in Lesser, Jeffrey, ed., Searching for Home Abroad: Japanese Brazilians and Transnationalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 5–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Creighton, Millie, “Metaphors of Japanese-ness and Negotiations of Nikkei Identity,” in Adachi, Nobuko, ed., Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World (Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2010), 133–62Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Ironically, many so-called Nikkei in Brazil reject the term due to its implication of a split national loyalty, a phenomenon first observed by Takashi, Maeyama in “Burajiru no Nikkeijin ni okeru aidenteitei- no hensen: Toku ni sutorateji- to no kanren ni oite,” Raten Amerika kenkyū 4 (1982): 181–219, here 210Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Tadao, Umesao, “Kaigai ijū no bunmeishiteki ishiki,” in Gaimushō [the Foreign Ministry], ed., Kaigai ijū no igi wo motomete: Burajiru ijū 70-shūnen kinen “Nihonjin no kaigai ijū ni kansuru shinpojiumu” (Tokyo: Gaimushō kokusai kyokuyoku jigyōdan, 1979), 17–30Google Scholar; Lesser, Jeffrey, A Discontented Diaspora: Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy, 1960–1980 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a recent overview and bibliography of the literature on the Nikkei in Brazil, see Kōichi, Mori, “Burajiru no Nihon imin, Nikkei ‘kenkyū’ no kaiko to tenbō,” in Hiroaki, Maruyama, ed., Burajiru no Nihon imin: Hyaku-nen no kiseki (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 2010), 13–66Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Lie, Multiethnic Japan, 136. For a recent historiography of the argument of national uniqueness, see Hodgson, Godfrey, The Myth of American Exceptionalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁷¹ On the changing significance of social scientists in the postwar period, see Hein, Laura, Reasonable Men, Powerful Words: Political Culture and Expertise in Twentieth-Century Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

⁷² See, for example, Dale, Peter, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986)Google Scholar; and Befu, Harumi, The Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁷³ Masao, Gamō, Nihonjin no seikatsu kōzō josetsu (Tokyo: Seishin shobō, 1960), 1Google Scholar; Ōno, “Imin to bunka,” 33; Takashi, Maeyama, “Nikkeijin to Nihon bunka: Toku ni Nikkei Burajiru bunka to kokkakan ni tsuite,” in Gaimushō, ed., Kaigai ijū no igi wo motomete: Burajiru ijū 70-shūnen kinen “Nihonjin no kaigai ijū ni kansuru shinpojiumu” (Tokyo: Gaimushō kokusai kyokuyoku jigyōdan, 1979), 202–13Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Seiichi, Izumi, “Bunka no hyōshitsusei to ishutsusei,” Shisō 463 (1963): 7–23Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ Tetsurō, Watsuji, A Climate: A Philosophical Study, Bownas, Geoffrey, trans. (Tokyo: Ministry of Education, 1961), 135, 127Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Eiichirō, Ishida, Japanese Culture: A Study of Origins and Characteristics, Kachi, Teruko, trans. (Honolulu: University of Hawaìi Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Yoshio, Masuda, Junsui bunka no jōken (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1967)Google Scholar; Gamō, Nihonjin no seikatsu kōzō josetsu.

⁷⁷ “Kōkan seijihan ni Nikkei Nisei: Issei tachi ni jōgeki,” Asahi Shinbun, 15 Mar. 1970: 14; “Nikkei gerira 20–30 nin,” Yomiuri Shinbun, 16 Mar. 1970: 2. For a full analysis of this incident, see Lesser, Discontented Diaspora, 122–47.

⁷⁸ Torahiko, Tamiya, Burajiru no Nihonjin (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1975), 208–13Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ “Kachigumi kanashii han-seiki: Burajiru no san kazoku kikoku,” Yomiuri Shinbun, 18 Nov. 1973: 23; “Yume no kōkyo ni sai keirei,” Yomiuri Shinbun, 19 Nov. 1973: 22; Toshirō, Takagi, “Kyōshin ‘bunko han’ no atogaki,” in Satoko, Takenaka, ed., Takagi Toshirō no yuigon, vol. 1 (Tokyo: Bungei shunjū kikaku shuppanbu, 2006), 248–58Google Scholar. For an analysis of more typical Brazilian Nikkei responses to “returning” to Japan, see Roth, Joshua Hotaka, “Adapting to Inequality: Negotiating Japanese Identity in Contexts of Return,” in Stewart, Charles, ed., Creolization: History, Ethnography, Theory (Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, 2007), 201–19Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Around the time of the Hamahiga party's visit, the “last soldiers” Yokoi Shōichi and Onoda Hiroo were repatriated from World War II battlefields in Guam and the Philippines, respectively. Both had lived in alleged ignorance of Japan's defeat for almost thirty years. These men evoked a horror and fascination similar to the kachigumi, and yet, perhaps out of respect for their suffering, the Japanese public eventually came to regard them as heroes. Onoda, Hiroo, No Surrender: My Thirty-Year War, Terry, Charles S., trans. (New York: Kodansha International, 1974)Google Scholar; Hatashin, Omi, Private Yokoi's War and Life on Guam, 1944–1972 (Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸¹ Centro de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros, Burajiru Nikkeijin no ishiki chōsa, 13; Nomura, Jōgo, “Burajiru ijū nana-jū nen ni omou,” in Gaimushō, ed., Kaigai ijū no igi wo motomete: Burajiru ijū 70-shūnen kinen “Nihonjin no kaigai ijū ni kansuru shinpojiumu” (Tokyo: Gaimushō kokusai kyokuyoku jigyōdan, 1979), 31–44, here 37Google Scholar.

⁸² Befu, Harumi, “Internationalization of Japan and Nihon bunkaron,” in Mannari, Hiroshi and Befu, Harumi, eds., The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture (Tokyo: Kwansei Gakuin University, 1983), 232–66Google Scholar.

⁸³ Hiroshi, Saitō, Atarashii Burajiru (Tokyo: Saimuru shuppankai, 1974)Google Scholar; Saitō, Gaikokujin ni natta Nihonjin; Saitō, “Kokusaijin no senku to shite Nikkei imin,” 20–52.

⁸⁴ Sonoda Sunao, “Hakkan no kotoba,” in Gaimushō, ed., Kaigai ijū no igi wo motomete, 1–4, here 2.

⁸⁵ Roett, Riordan, “Brazil and Japan: Potential vs. Reality,” in Purcell, Susan Kaufman and Immerman, Robert M., eds., Japan and Latin America in the New Global Order (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), 101–20, here 103Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Nihon kaigai ijū kazokukai rengōkai, Nanbei no Nikkei koronia (Tokyo: Nihon kaigai ijū kazokukai rengōkai, 1966), 143Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ Sasaki, Koji, “Between Emigration and Immigration: Japanese Emigrants to Brazil and Their Descendants in Japan,” Senri Ethnological Reports 77 (2008): 53–66Google Scholar; Nishida, Mieko, “Why Does a Nikkei Want to Talk to Other Nikkeis?: Japanese Brazilians and Their Identity in São Paulo,” Critique of Anthropology 29, 4 (2009): 423–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ishikawa, Eunice Akemi, “The Return of Japanese-Brazilian Next Generations: Their Post-1980 Experiences in Japan,” in Conway, Dennis and Potter, Robert B., eds., Return Migration of the Next Generations: Twenty-First Century Transnational Mobility (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009), 59–78Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ For an overview and bibliography of migration studies in Japan, see gakkai, Nihon imin, ed., Imin kenkyū to tabunka kyosei (Tokyo: Ochanomizu shobō, 2011)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Riri, Kawamura, Nihon shakai to Burajiru imin (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 2000)Google Scholar; Linger, Daniel, No One Home: Brazilian Selves Remade in Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Roth, Joshua Hotaka, Brokered Homeland: The Japanese Brazilian Migrants in Japan (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Tsuda, Takeyuki, Strangers in the Ethnic Homeland: Japanese Brazilian Return Migration in Transnational Perspective (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Takenaka, Ayumi, “Paradoxes of Ethnicity-Based Immigration: Peruvian and Japanese Peruvian Migrants in Japan,” in Goodman, Roger, Peach, Ceri, Takenaka, Ayumi, and White, Paul, eds., Global Japan: The Experience of Japan's New Immigrants and Overseas Communities (New York: Routledge, 2003), 222–35Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Lesser, ed., Searching for Home Abroad; Goto, Junichi, “Latin Americans of Japanese Origin (Nikkeijin) Working in Japan—A Survey,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4203 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oda, Ernani, “Familial Narratives and Transforming Identities: Three Generations of Japanese Brazilians Living Between Brazil, Japan, and Beyond,” Social Identities 16, 6 (2010): 775–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹¹ Komai, Hiroshi, Foreign Migrants in Contemporary Japan (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001), 157Google Scholar; Takamichi, Kajita, Kiyoto, Tanno, and Naoto, Higuchi, Kao no mienai teijūka: Nikkei Burajirujin to kokka shijō, imin nettowa-ku (Nagoya: Nagoya Daigaku shuppankai, 2005)Google Scholar; Takeyuki “Gaku” Tsuda, “Crossing Ethnic Boundaries: Japanese Brazilian Return Migrants and the Ethnic Challenge of Japan's Newest Immigrant Minority,” in Graburn, Nelson H. H., Ertl, John, and Tierney, R. Kenji, eds., Multiculturalism in the New Japan: Crossing the Boundaries Within (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008), 117–38Google Scholar.

⁹² Shimoda, Haruo, Japan's “Guest Workers”: Issues and Public Policies, Northridge, Roger, trans. (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1994), 207Google Scholar.

⁹³ Ibid., 210.

⁹⁴ Takashi, Maeyama, “Burajiru de Nihonjin wo jinruigaku suru,” Minzokugaku kenkyū 65, 4 (2001): 376–91Google Scholar. Likewise, sociologist Chikako Kashiwazaki criticizes the absence of a “vision for a multi-ethnic conception of Japanese nationhood,” but does not consider the possibility of collective membership based on non-ethnic or civic criteria; in “Internationalism and Transnationalism: Responses to Immigration in Japan,” in Vogt, Gabriele and Roberts, Glenda S., eds., Migration and Integration: Japan in Comparative Perspective (Munich: Iudicium, 2011), 41–57, here 54Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ Tsuda, Takeyuki, “Localities and the Struggle for Immigrant Rights: The Significance of Local Citizenship in Recent Countries of Immigration,” in Tsuda, Takeyuki, ed., Local Citizenship in Recent Countries of Immigration: Japan in Comparative Perspective (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2006), 3–36Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Germany's Nationality Law of 2000 liberalized naturalization procedures, allowing the descendants of non-ethnic German immigrants to acquire full rights as citizens of the Federal Republic. Nonetheless, ethnic discrimination has persisted. On the delineation of national belonging in Germany through citizenship, see Brubaker, Rogers, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; and Joppke, Citizenship and Immigration.

⁹⁷ Hollinger, David A., Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 3–4Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Weiner, Myron, “Opposing Visions: Migration and Citizenship Policies in Japan and the United States,” in Weiner, Myron and Hanami, Tadashi, eds., Temporary Workers or Future Citizens? Japan and U.S. Migration Policies (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 3–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the American creed and its limitations in defining collective belonging in the United States, see Huntington, Samuel P., Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004)Google Scholar.