Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T03:26:53.562Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Longitudinal Studies of PTSD: Overview of Findings and Methods

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Abstract

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has a discernible starting point and typical course, hence the particular appropriateness of longitudinal research in this disorder. This review outlines the salient findings of longitudinal studies published between 1988 and 2004. Studies have evaluated risk factors and risk indicators of PTSD, the disorder's trajectory, comorbid disorders and the predictive role of acute stress disorder. More recent studies used advanced data analytic methods to explore the sequence of causation that leads to chronic PTSD. Advantages and limitations of longitudinal methods are discussed.

Type
Review Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.Google Scholar
2.Solomon, Z, Mikulincer, M, Flum, H. The implications of life events and social integration in the course of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1989;24:4148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Solomon, Z. PTSD and social functioning. A three year prospective study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1989;24:127133.Google Scholar
4.McFarlane, AC. The longitudinal course of posttraumatic morbidity. The range of outcomes and their predictors. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1988;176:3039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Yehuda, R, McFarlane, AC. Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:17051713.Google ScholarPubMed
6.Karlehagen, S, Malt, UF, Hoff, H, et al.The effect of major railway accidents on the psychological health of train drivers-II. A longitudinal study of the one-year out-come after the accident. J Psychosom Res. 1993;37:807817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Nolen-Hoeksema, S, Morrow, J. A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1991;61:115121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Weisaeth, L. The stressors and the post-traumatic stress syndrome after an industrial disaster. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1989;355:2537.Google Scholar
9.Feinstein, A, Dolan, R. Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following physical trauma: an examination of the stressor criterion. Psychol Med. 1991;21:8591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Perry, S, Difede, J, Musngi, G, et al.Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:931935.Google Scholar
11.Green, MM, McFarlane, AC, Hunter, CE, Griggs, WM. Undiagnosed post-traumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Med J Aust. 1993;159:529534.Google Scholar
12.Shalev, AY, Peri, T, Canetti, L, Schreiber, S. Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: a prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:219225.Google Scholar
13.Breslau, N, Wilcox, HC, Storr, CL, Lucia, VC, Anthony, JC. Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder: a study of youths in urban America. J Urban Health. 2004;81:530544.Google Scholar
14.Zatzick, DF, Kang, SM, Muller, HG, et al.Predicting posttraumatic distress in hospitalized trauma survivors with acute injuries. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:941946.Google Scholar
15.Breslau, N, Wilcox, HC, Storr, CL, Lucia, VC, Anthony, JC. Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder: a study of youths in urban America. J Urban Health. 2004;81:530544.Google Scholar
16.Carlier, IV, Lamberts, RD, Gersons, BP. Risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in police officers: a prospective analysis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185:498506.Google Scholar
17.Delahanty, DL, Herberman, HB, Craig, KJ, et al.Acute and chronic distress and post-traumatic stress disorder as a function of responsibility for serious motor vehicle accidents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1997;65:560567.Google Scholar
18.Southwick, SM, Morgan, CA 3rd, Nicolaou, AL, Charney, DS. Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:173177.Google Scholar
19.Blanchard, EB, Hickling, EJ, Barton, KA, Taylor, AE, Loos, WR, Jones-Alexander, J. One-year prospective follow-up of motor vehicle accident victims. Behav Res Ther. 1996;34:775786.Google Scholar
20.Hickling, EJ, Blanchard, EB, Buckley, TC, Taylor, AE. Effects of attribution of responsibility for motor vehicle accidents on severity of PTSD symptoms, ways of coping, and recovery over six months. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12:345353.Google Scholar
21.Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA. Reconstructing trauma memories: a prospective study of ‘amnesic’ trauma survivors. J Trauma Stress. 2001;14:277282.Google Scholar
22.King, DW, King, LA, Erickson, DJ, Huang, MT, Sharkansky, EJ, Wolfe, J. Posttraumatic stress disorder and retrospectively reported stressor exposure: a longitudinal prediction model. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000;109:624633.Google Scholar
23.Beck, AT, Ward, CH, Mendelson, M, Mock, J, Erbaugh, J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1961;4:561571.Google Scholar
24.Shalev, AY, Freedman, S, Peri, T, et al.Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:630637.Google Scholar
25.Ehlers, A, Mayou, RA, Bryant, B. Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. J Abnorm Psychol. 1998;107:508519.Google Scholar
26.Schnurr, PP, Spiro, A 3rd, Aldwin, CM, Stukel, TA. Physical symptom trajectories following trauma exposure: longitudinal findings from the normative aging study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186:522528.Google Scholar
27.Shalev, AY, Sahar, T, Freedman, S, et al.A prospective study of heart rate responses following trauma and the subsequent development of PTSD. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:553555.Google Scholar
28.Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA. The relationship between acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder: a 2-year prospective evaluation. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67:985988.Google Scholar
29.Marmar, CR, Weiss, DS, Metzler, TJ, Delucchi, KL, Best, SR, Wentworth, KA. Longitudinal course and predictors of continuing distress following critical incident exposure in emergency services personnel. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1999;187:1522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Ursano, RJ, Fullerton, CS, Epstein, RS, et al.Peritraumatic dissociation and post-traumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:18081810.Google Scholar
31.Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG, Guthrie, RM, Moulds, ML. A prospective study of psycho-physiological arousal, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000;109:341344.Google Scholar
32.Dunmore, E, Clark, DM, Ehlers, A. A prospective investigation of the rale of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behav Res Ther. 2001;39:10631084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Mollica, RF, Sarajlic, N, Chernoff, M, Lavelle, J, Vukovic, IS, Massagli, MP. Longitudinal study of psychiatric symptoms, disability, mortality, and emigration among Bosnian refugees. JAMA. 2001;286:546554.Google Scholar
34.Holeva, V, Tarrier, N. Personality and peritraumatic dissociation in the prediction of PTSD in victims of road traffic accidents. J Psychosom Res. 2001;51:687692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA. Two-year prospective evaluation of the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:626628.Google Scholar
36.Bryant, RA, Marosszeky, JE, Crooks, J, Gurka, JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder after severe traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:629631.Google Scholar
37.Jones, C, Griffiths, RD, Humphris, G, Skirrow, PM. Memory, delusions, and the development of acute posttraumatic stress disorder-related symptoms after intensive care. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:687688.Google Scholar
38.Erickson, DJ, Wolfe, J, King, DW, King, LA, Sharkansky, EJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptomatology in a sample of Gulf War veterans: a prospective analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2001;69:4149.Google Scholar
39.Mayou, R, Bryant, B, Ehlers, A. Prediction of psychological outcomes one year after a motor vehicle accident. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:12311238.Google Scholar
40.Zatzick, DF, Kang, SM, Hinton, WL, et al.Posttraumatic concerns: a patient-centered approach to outcome assessment after traumatic physical injury. Med Care. 2001;39:327339.Google Scholar
41.Stein, MB, Hofler, M, Perkonigg, A. Patterns of incidence and psychiatric risk factors for traumatic events. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2002;11:143153.Google Scholar
42.Marshall, GN, Schell, TL. Reappraising the link between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD symptom severity: evidence from a longitudinal study of community violence survivors. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002;111:626636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Murray, J, Ehlers, A, Mayou, RA. Dissociation and post-traumatic stress disorder: two prospective studies of road traffic accident survivors. Br J Psychiatry. 2002;180:363368.Google Scholar
44.Silver, RC, Holman, EA, McIntosh, DN, Poulin, M, Gil-Rivas, V. Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. JAMA. 2002;288:12351244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Koren, D, Arnon, I, Klein, E. Acute stress response and posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: a one-year prospective, follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:367373.Google Scholar
46.Engelhard, IM, van den Hout, MA, Arntz, A. Posttraumatic stress disorder after pregnancy loss. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2001;23:6266.Google Scholar
47.Zatzick, DF, Russo, J, Pitman, RK, Rivara, F, Jurkovich, G, Roy-Byrne, P. Reevaluating the association between emergency department heart rate and the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: a public health approach. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:9195.Google Scholar
48.Shalev, AY, Peri, T, Brandes, D, Freedman, S, Orr, SP, Pitman, RK. Auditory startle response in trauma survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:255261.Google Scholar
49.Orr, SP, Metzger, LJ, Lasko, NB, et al.Physiologic responses to sudden, loud tones in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: association with posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:283288.Google Scholar
50.Schnyder, U, Moergeli, H, Klaghofer, R, Buddeberg, C. Incidence and prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in severely injured accident victims. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:594599.Google Scholar
51.Perkonigg, A, Kessler, RC, Storz, S, et al.Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: prevalence, risk factors and comorbidity. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;101:4659.Google Scholar
52.Creamer, M. Oral presentation: at annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress; November 5, 2005; Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
53.Galea, S, Vlahov, D, Resnick, H, et al.Trends of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;158:514524.Google Scholar
54.King, LA, King, DW, Salgado, DM, Shalev, AY. Contemporary longitudinal methods for the study of trauma and PTSD. CNS Spectr. 2003;8:686692.Google Scholar
55.Orcutt, HK, Erickson, DJ, Wolfe, J. The course of PTSD symptoms among Gulf War veterans: a growth mixture modeling approach. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17:195202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Hoge, CW, Auchterlonie, JL, Milliken, CS. Mental health problems, use of mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. JAMA. 2006;295:10231032.Google Scholar
57.Schell, TL, Marshall, GN, Jaycox, LH. All symptoms are not created equal: the prominent role of hyperarousal in the natural course of posttraumatic psychological distress. J Abnorm Psychol. 2004;113:189197.Google Scholar
58.Blanchard, EB, Hickling, EJ, Vollmer, AJ, Loos, WR, Buckley, TC, Jaccard, J. Short-term follow-up of post-traumatic stress symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33:369377.Google Scholar
59.Thabet, AA, Vostanis, P. Post traumatic stress disorder reactions in children of war: a longitudinal study. Child Abuse Negl. 2000;24:289290.Google Scholar
60.Saxe, GN, Stoddard, F, Hall, E, et al.Pathways to PTSD. Part I: children with burns. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:12991304.Google Scholar
61.Kaplow, JB, Dodge, KA, Amaya-Jackson, L, Saxe, GN. Pathways to PTSD, part II: sexually abused children. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:13051310.Google Scholar
62.Koenen, KC, Stellman, JM, Stellman, SD, Sommer, JF Jr.Risk factors for course of posttraumatic stress disorder among Vietnam veterans: a 14-year follow-up of American Legionnaires. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003;71:980986.Google Scholar
63.Johnson, DR, Fontana, A, Lubin, H, Corn, B, Rosenheck, R. Long-term course of treatment-seeking Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: mortality, clinical condition, and life satisfaction. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004;192:3541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG, Guthrie, RM, Moulds, ML. Acute psychophysioiogical arousal and posttraumatic stress disorder: a two-year prospective study. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16:439443.Google Scholar
65.Birmes, P, Brunet, A, Carreras, D, et al.The predictive power of peritraumatic dissociation and acute stress symptoms for posttraumatic stress symptoms: a three-month prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:13371339.Google Scholar
66.O'Donnell, ML, Creamer, M, Pattison, P, Atkin, C. Psychiatric morbidity following injury. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:507514.Google Scholar
67.North, CS, Kawasaki, A, Spitznagel, EL, Hong, BA. The course of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse, and somatization after a natural disaster. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004;192:823829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Fullerton, CS, Ursano, RJ, Wang, L. Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:13701376.Google Scholar
69.Gil, S, Caspi, Y, Ben-Ari, IZ, Koren, D, Klein, E. Does memory of a traumatic event increase the risk for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with traumatic brain injury? A prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:963969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Freedman, SA, Brandes, D, Peri, T, Shalev, A. Predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. A prospective study. Br J Psychiatry. 1999;174:353359.Google Scholar
71.Radloff, LS. The CES-D Scale: a self-report scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement. 1977;1:385401.Google Scholar