Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-27gpq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T05:54:08.686Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Disaster Mental Health Services Following The 1995 Oklahoma City Bombing: Modifying Approaches to Address Terrorism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Abstract

How did the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing differ from prior disasters and what implications did it have for disaster mental health services and service delivery? The federal disaster mental health approach in this country developed largely out of experiences with natural disasters. The 1995 Oklahoma City bombing differed in several important ways, including the large number of human casualties, higher rates of psychopathology, and an extended period of concern due to the criminal investigation and trials, which suggested the need to consider modifications in the program. Outreach was extensive, but psychiatric morbidity of direct victims was greater than that of victims of natural disasters, emphasizing the need for attention to the triage and referral process. Other concerns that warrant consideration include practices related to record keeping and program evaluation.

Type
Feature Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Myers, D. Disaster Response and Recovery: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals, DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 943010. Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services; 1994.Google Scholar
2.Center for Mental Health Services. Program Guidance: Crisis Counseling and Mental Health Treatment Similarities and Differences. Rockville, Md: Center for Mental Health Services; 1994.Google Scholar
3.Flynn, BW, Nelson, ME. Understanding the needs of children following large-scale disasters and the role of government. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1998;7:211227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.North, CS, Nixon, SJ, Shariat, S, et al.Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA. 1999;282:755762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.McMillen, JC, North, CS, Smith, EM. What parts of PTSD are normal: intrusion, avoidance, or arousal? Data from the Northridge, Calif, earthquake. J Trauma Stress. 2000;13:5775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.North, CS. Psychological trauma and terrorism: assuring that Americans receive the support they need [US Senate Web site]. US Senate testimony. 926-2001. Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. Accessed September 27, 2001, from http://www.senate.gov/~labor/North.pdfGoogle Scholar
7.North, CS, Smith, EM. Conspectus: posttraumatic stress disorder in disaster survivors. Compr Ther. 1990;16:39.Google Scholar
8.North, CS, Smith, EM, McCool, RE, et al.Acute postdisaster coping and adjustment. J Trauma Stress. 1989;2:353360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9.North, CS, Smith, EM, McCool, RE, et al.Short-term psychopathology in eyewitnesses to mass murder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry. 1989:40:12931295.Google ScholarPubMed
10.North, CS, Smith, EM, Spitznagel, EL. Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:8288.Google ScholarPubMed
11.Call, JA, Pfefferbaum, B. Lessons from the first two years of Project Heartland, Oklahoma's mental health response to the 1995 bombing. Psychiatr Serv. 1999;50:953955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Pfefferbaum, B, Call, JA, Sconzo, GM. Mental health services for children in the first two years after the 1995 Oklahoma City terrorist bombing. Psychiatr Serv. 1999a;50:956958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Earls, F, Smith, E, Reich, W, et al.Investigating psychopathological consequences of a disaster in children: a pilot study incorporating a structured diagnostic interview. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1988;27:9095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Handford, HA, Mayes, SD, Mattison, RE, et al.Child and parent reaction to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1986;25:346356CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15.Korol, M, Green, BL, Gleser, GC. Children's responses to a nuclear waste disaster: PTSD symptoms and outcome prediction. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:368375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Office for Victims of Crime. Responding to Terrorism Victims: Oklahoma City and Beyond. Rockville, Md: US Department of Justice, Publication No. NCJ 183949; 2000.Google Scholar
17.Pfefferbaum, B, Call, JA, Lensgraf, SJ, et al.Traumatic grief in a convenience sample of victims seeking support services after a terrorist incident. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2001;13:1924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Pfefferbaum, B, Doughty, DE. Increased alcohol use in a treatment sample of Oklahoma City bombing victims. Psychiatry. 2001;64:296303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Pfefferbaum, B, Vinekar, SS, Trautman, RP, et al.The effect of loss and trauma on substance use behavior in individuals seeking support services after the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. Ann Clin Psychiatry. In press.Google Scholar
20.Tucker, P, Dickson, W, Pfefferbaum, B, et al.Traumatic reactions as predictors of posttraumatic stress six months after the Oklahoma City bombing. Psychiatr Serv. 1997;48:11911194.Google ScholarPubMed
21.Tucker, P, Pfefferbaum, B, Nixon, SJ, et al.Predictors of post-traumatic stress symptoms in Oklahoma City: exposure, social support, peri-traumatic responses. J Behav Health Serv Res. 2000;27:406416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Norris, F, Friedman, M, Watson, P, et al.60,000 disaster victims speak. Part I: an empirical review of the empirical literature on the mental health consequences of disasters, 1981-2001. Psychiatry. In press.Google Scholar