Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T10:08:21.152Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Most Respected Enemy: Mao Zedong's Perception of the United States*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

He Di
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Mao Zedong's key concern in his analysis of the United States was always how to estimate American influence on the survival and security of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and, after 1 October 1949, of the People's Republic of China (PRC). But on 21 February 1972, Richard Nixon, the first American president ever to set foot on Chinese soil, began what he called “the week that changed the world.” This was also perhaps the most significant day in the 200-year history of Sino-U.S. relations. To prepare for it Nixon read extensive background materials on China, listened to specialists' advice on how to deal with his Chinese counterparts, and even practised eating with chopsticks. Nevertheless, he still felt nervous, fearing that he might be subjected to the humiliation previously encountered by Western barbarians who had journeyed to the court of the Chinese Emperor in an earlier age.

Type
Mao at 100
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 137 , March 1994 , pp. 144 - 158
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Public Papers of the President (Washington, D.C.: GovemmentPrintmgOffice, 1972), p. 379.

2. Nixon, Richard, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1978), pp. 557–58Google Scholar, 560.

3. Yufong, Zhong, “Baobing huijian Ni Kesong” (“A meeting with Nixon during Mao's illness”), Woyanzhong de Mao Zedong (As I saw Mao Zedong) (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1990), pp. 267–69Google Scholar; also Editing Office of Diplomatic History of Foreign Ministry of PRC, “Dakai zhongmei guanxi de lishi jincheng” (“Opening the historical process of Sino-American relations”), Dangde wenxian, No. 3, 1991), p. 82.Google Scholar

4. Nixon, RN, p. 562.

5. Guanyu jianguo yilai dangde ruogan Hshi wenti de jueyi (Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party Since the Founding of the PRC) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983).

6. “Dakai zhongmei guanxi de lishi jincheng,” p. 82.

7. Payne, Robert, Mao Tse-tung (New York: Henry Schman Inc., 1950), pp. 35–36.Google Scholar

8. Zedong, Mao, “Zhi Xiao Zisheng xin” (“Mao's letter to Xiao Zisheng”), 25 July 1916, Mao Zedong zaoqi wengao (Early Writing of Mao Zedong) (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1990), pp. 51–52.Google Scholar

9. See Shambaugh, David, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972–1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991)Google Scholar; and Hunt, Michael, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).Google Scholar

10. “Mao Zedong wei huansong Xu Xiangqian de yanhui shangde jianghua” (“Mao's speech at a farewell banquet for General Xu Xiangqian”), July 1947, in the unpublished memoir of An Ziwen.

11. Zedong, Mao, “Carry the revolution to end,” Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Vol. 4 (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1961), p. 301.Google Scholar

12. Zedong, Mao, “Muqian xingshi he dangzai 1945 de renwu” (“The current situation and the task for our party in 1945”), in Collected Works of Mao Zedong on Military Affairs (Beijing: Zhanshi chubanshe, 1986), p. 329.Google Scholar

13. Mao Zedong, “Report on Second Session of Seventh Central Committee,” Selected Works, Vol. 4, pp. 370–71.

14. Di, He, “From the Ward case to Stuart's efforts,” unpublished paper; interview with Sergei Goncharov, Russian expert on Sino-Soviet relations in April 1992.Google Scholar

15. Mao Zedong, “Friendship or invasion?” in Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 448.

16. He Di, “The last campaign to unify China: the CCP's unmaterialized plan to liberate Taiwan, 1949–1950,” Chinese Historian, Vol. V, No. 1, pp. 1–15.

17. Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Mao Zedong's Manuscripts Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China), Vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1987), pp. 245–48; Shi Zhe: Zai lishijuren shenbian (By the Side of the Historical Giant) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1991), p. 454.

18. After visiting Moscow on 17 April 1950, on 13–15 May Kim II-sung came to Beijing and told Mao that he had won permission from Stalin to attack South Korea. Mao warned him repeatedly about possible U.S. involvement. China's opposition to the attack had arisen in discussions among North Korea, the Soviet Union and China. Interviews with Shi Zhe in 1981–82, January 1986 and May 1991, and Lei Yingfu in June and July 1990; Sergei Goncharov, V. P. Tkachonko, then head of the Korean Division of the Soviet Foreign Ministry; and I. V. Kovalev, the adviser from the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party stationed in China.

19. Interviews with Lei Yingfu.

20. Shi Zhe, Zai lishijuren shenbian, pp. 492–93; interview with Goncharov; Goncharov's notes of his interview with Kapitsa; also Yinqiao, Li, Zouxia shentan de Mao Zedong (Mao Zedong Who Was No Longer a God) (Beijing: Zhongwai wenhua chubanshe, 1989), p. 122–133.Google Scholar Li was the head of Mao's bodyguards at the time.

21. Shi Zhe, Zai lishijuren shenbian, pp. 496–97; interviews with Shi Zhe, Lei Yingfu and Goncharov.

22. Jianguo yilai, Vol. 1, p. 556.

23. Ibid. pp. 539–540.

24. Mao Zedong, Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 117.

25. “Mao Zedong's speech in his meeting with Cuban cultural, trade union, youth delegations,” 26 July 1963, in Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long Live Mao Zedong Thought) (Beijing, 1976), Vol. IV, p. 84.

26. The concept of a U.S. attack from Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan first appeared in the People's Daily editorial of 6 November 1950. Pu Shan claims it was in 1953 that China formed a special research group because of this strategic perspective; interview with Pu Shan in May 1991.

27. Di, He, “The evolution of PRC's policy toward offshore islands,” in Cohen, Warren and Iriye, Akira (eds.), The Great Powers in East Asia, 1953–1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 224–25Google Scholar; and interviews with Pu Shouchang in November 1987 and January 1988.

28. He Di and Gordon Chang, “New perceptions of a Cold War episode: Sino-American confrontation in Taiwan Strait, 1954–1955,” unpublished m.s.;Jianguoyilai, Vol. 5, pp. 533, 629; interview with Zhang Aiping in June 1988.

29. “Instruction from the Central Committee of CCP on propaganda concerning U.S. intervention with our liberation of Taiwan,” 21 February 1955, in Chinese Communist Party Central Archives (hereafter CA).

30. Disillusioned Nationalist officials dubbed the “unleashing” of Chiang Kai-shek as a “lend-leash” policy; interviews in 1954 by Allen S. Whiting.

31. Bingnan, Wang, Zhong-Mei huitan jiunian huigu (Recollections of Nine Years of Sino-U.S. Talks) (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1985), p. 82Google Scholar; interview with Wang Bingnan in August 1988.

32. Gang, Sun and Dongsheng, Sun, “An important meeting at a turning point in history,” in Dangde wenxian. No. 3 (1991), p. 14.Google Scholar

33. Cited from Chen Yi's speech discussing the world situation, 17 June 1958; Archives of the Chinese Foreign Ministry.

34. Huaizhi, Han et al., Dangdai Zhongguo jundui dejunshi gongzuo (The Military Affairs of Contemporary Armed Forces of China) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988), pp. 386–87.Google Scholar

35. Mao's talk with Khrushchev, 1 August 1958, CA.

36. Ibid.; interviews with Lei Yingfu and Ye Fei in August 1990; also see Memoirs of Ye Fei (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988), pp. 654–55.

37. Zedong, Mao, “Talk at the meeting of the Supreme State Conference,” 5 September, 1958), Mao Zedong sixiang wansui, Vol. I, pp. 169–174.Google Scholar

38. Ibid. pp. 175–78.

39. Wang Bingnan, Zhong-Mei huitan jiunian huigu, pp. 70—71.

40. Jie, Li, “Recollections and reflections on Mao Zedong's idea of preventing a peaceful transition,” in Dangde wenxian. Vol. 3 (1991), p. 56.Google Scholar At the Hangzhou meeting in November 1959, Mao had three of Dulles’ speeches circulated.

41. Mao Zedong, “Talk at the Supreme State Conference,” pp. 169–170.

42. “Mao Zedong's talk with African guests,” 7 May 1960, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui, Vol. III, pp. 48–50.

43. Interviews with Lei Yingfu and Lin Ke in March and May 1990.

44. “Notes of Mao Zedong's talk with Montgomery,” 7 May 1960, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui. Vol. III, p. 89.

45. Snow, Edgar, The Long Revolution (New York: Random House, 1971), p. 171.Google Scholar

46. “Central Committee of CCP instructions to the workers in foreign affairs,” 18 August 1944, CA.

47. “Mao's talk with Kissinger,” 17 February 1973, CA.

48. For an early instance see San's, Xiao reminiscences of Mao's youth in Robert Payne, Mao Tse-tung (New York: Henry Schman Inc., 1950), pp. 35–36.Google Scholar

49. “Mao Zedong's talk with Snow on 9 January 1965,“Snow, The Long Revolution, p. 203.

50. Ibid. p. 171.

51. “Mao's talk at the Second Session of Eighth Congress of CCP,” 8 May 1958, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui. Vol. II, p. 29.

52. Strong, Anna Louise, “Three conversations with Chairman Mao Zedong,” The China Quarterly, Vol. 103 (September 1985), p. 505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

53. “Mao Zedong's speech at the Work Meeting of Central Committee,” 13 January 1961, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui, Vol. III, p. 105.

54. “Mao's talk at Hangzhou meeting,” 21 December 1965, ibid. Vol. IV, p. 391.

55. Snow, Edgar, Random Notes on Red China (New York: Random House, 1972), p. 65.Google Scholar

56. When Snow told Mao that American food was produced by farmers who comprised only 8% of the population, Mao reacted, “how could that be?” Snow, The Long Revolution, p. 215.

57. Interview with Lin Ke.

58. “Mao Zedong's talks on problems of philosophy,” 8 August 1964, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui. Vol. IV, p. 256.

59. Li Yinqiao, Zouxia shentan de Mao Zedong, p. 205.

60. Ibid. pp. 216–17.

61. “Mao'sspeechattheSecondSessionofEighthPartyCongress,” 17May 1958; “Mao's notes on Soviet Textbook of Political Economy (Socialist Part),” 1959, Mao Zedong sixiang wansui, Vol. II, pp. 35 and 83.