¹ [1986] 1 Q.B. 716.

² [1990] A.C. 728.

³ [1978] A.C. 728.

⁴ See Howarth, D., “Negligence after Murphy: Time to Re-think” [1991] C.L.J. 58: R. O'Dair, “Murphy v. Brentwood District Council: A House With Firm Foundations?” (1991) 54 M.L.R. 561Google Scholar; Harris, J.W., “Murphy makes it Eight—Overruling comes to Negligence” (1991) 11 Journal of Legal Studies 416; I.N.D. Wallace, “Anns Beyond Repair” (1991) 107 L.O.R. 228; B.S. Markcsinis and S. Dcakin, “The Random Element of their Lordships' Infallible Judgment: An Economic and Comparative Analysis of the Tort of Negligence from Anns to Murphy” (1992)55 M.L.R. 619.Google Scholar

⁵ [1972 1 O.B. 373.

⁶ [1932] A.C. 562.

⁷ Lord Macmillan's speech has been recently studied by A. Rodger, “Lord Macmillan's Speech in Donoghue v. Stevenson” (1992) 108 L.O.R. 236; the passage quoted is discussed at p. 242.

⁸ [1964] A.C. 465; see Craig, P.P., “Negligent Misstatements, Negligent Acts and Economic Loss” (1976)92L.Q.R.213.Google Scholar

⁹ [1970] A.C. 1004 at 1026, per Lord Reid, who made a reference to the Atkin dictum.

¹⁰ [1978] A.C. 728 at 751 et seq.

¹¹ See for example B. v. Islington Health Authority [1991] 1 Q.B. 638, (1992) 3 W.L.R. 637 (C.A.), in which the fact that the defendant was a public body is in no way discussed.

¹² See McBridc, J., “Damages as a Remedy for Unlawful Administrative Action” [1979] C.L.J.323Google Scholar

¹³ The topic is discussed by Swadling, W.J., “Liability for Negligent Refusal of Unemployment Benefit”Google Scholar[1988] P.L. 328 and by Bradley, A. W., “Liability for Wrongful Withdrawal of Disability Benefits” [1989] P.L. 199.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Administrative Justice: Some Necessary Reforms (Oxford 1988), para. 11.2; see also Harlow, C., Compensation and Government Torts (London 1982), p. 14: “the administration possesses special powers. When loss is caused by the exercise of these powers it may seem that compensation should be made.”Google Scholar

¹⁶ Indeed, in some categories of cases, the benefits go to the insurer: see Weir, T., “Governmental Liability” [1989] P.L. 40.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Notably in Governors of the Peabody Donation Fund v. Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co. Ltd. [1985] 1 A.C. 210 and in Richardson v. West Lindsey District Council [1990] 1 W.L.R. 522.Google Scholar

¹⁸ [1991] 1 A.C. 398 (H.L. and C.A.).

¹⁹ In Lonrho v. Tebbit [1992] 4 AH E.R. 280,286, Dillon L.J. states that “[t]he preferred approach is now what is called ‘the incremental approach’”.

²⁰ [1991] 1 A.C. 398, 471.

²¹ [1991] 1 A.C. 398, 487.

²² [1991] 1 A.C. 398, 499.

²³ [1964] A.C. 465; Hedley Byrne was followed by the Court of Appeal in Ministry of Housing and Local Government v. Sharp [1970] 2 Q.B. 223, unusual for a damages claim in that both the plaintiff and the second defendant were public authorities.

²⁴ [1991] 1 A.C. 398, 490.

²⁵ [1989] Q.B. 1, at 22, per Glidewell L.J., with whom his brethren concurred.

²⁶ [1988] A.C. 175.

²⁷ [1990] 1 W.L.R. 821 (P.C.).

²⁸ Yuen Kun-yeu v. A -G of Hong Kong [1988] A.C. 175, 191 I., per Lord Keith of Kinkel.

²⁹ Yuen Kun-yeu v. A-G of Hong Kong [1988] A.C. 175 at 196, per Lord Keith of Kinkel, and Davis v. Radcliffe [1990] 1 W.L.R. 821 at 827, per Lord Goff.

³⁰ In Rowling v. Takaro Properties Ltd. [1988] A.C. 473, the Privy Council ruled that taking into consideration a legally irrelevant factor in coming to an administrative decision did not, in the circumstances of the case, amount to a breach of a duty of care, and consequently held it unnecessary to decide whether such a duty existed.

³¹ [1986] 1 O.B. 716.

³² Its limits were shown in the House of Lords decision in Jones v. Swansea City Council [1990] 1 W.L.R. 1453, reversing [1990] 1 W.L.R. 54 (C.A.).

³³ Joint Cases C-6/90 and C-9/90, [1990] I.R.L.R. 84.

³⁴ Pret. Bassano del Grappa, 30 decembre 1989, published in Dir. Prat. Lav. 1990, 1698, and Pret. Vicenza, 9 luglio 1989, unrep., whose text the author has read thanks to Av v.ti Claudio Mondin and Aldo Campesan, counsel to the plaintiffs in both cases.

³⁵ O.J.E.C. 1980, No. L. 283/23.

³⁶ The liability problem had been analysed in detail by Simon, D. and A. Barav, “La responsabilitid´ l'administration nationale en cas de violation du droit communautaire”, (1987) R.M.C. 165 ff.Google Scholar

³⁷ Case 26/62, Rec. 1963, 3, [1963] E.C.R. 10

³⁸ Case 6/64, Rec. 1964, 1141, [1964] E.C.R. 585.

³⁹ Case 106/77, Rec. 1978, 629, [1978] E.C.R. 629.

⁴⁰ Case C-213/89, Rec. 1990,1, 2433, [1991] 1 A.C. 603.

⁴¹ The case law concerning article 5 is analysed by Lang, J.T., “Community Constitutional Law: Article 5 EEC Treaty” (1990) 27 C.M.L. Rev. 645.Google Scholar

⁴² Case 33/76, [1976], E.C.R. 1997, cons. 5.

⁴³ Case 45/76, [1976] E.C.R. 2053, cons. 12–17.

⁴⁴ But for a traditional reading of the rule see Búrca, G.de, “Giving Effect to European Community Directives” (1992) 55 M.L.R. 215, at p. 238.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Case 106/77, [1978] E.C.R. 629, para. 22.

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⁴⁷ Case 199/82, [1983] E.C.R. 3595.

⁴⁸ R. v. Secretary of Stale for Transport, ex pane Factortame Ltd. No. 2. [1991] 1 A.C. 603; see the commentaries by Oliver, D., “Fishing on the Incoming Tide” (1991) 54 M.L.R. 442Google Scholar, and Toth, A.G. (1990) 27 C.M.L. Rev. 574Google Scholar; see also Wade, H.W.R., “What has Happened to the Sovereignty of Parliament?” (1991) 107 L.Q.R. 1; Id., “Injunctive Relief against the Crown and Ministers”Google Scholaribidem, 4; Gravells, N.P., “Disapplying an Act of Parliament Pending Ruling: Constitutional Enormity or Community Law Right?” [1989] P.L. 568Google Scholar; Barav, A., “Enforcement of Community Rights in the National Courts: The Case for Jurisdiction to Grant an Interim Relief” (1989) 26 C.M.L. Rev. 369 ff.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ [1989]2C.M.L.R. 353.

⁵¹ [1990] 2 A.C. 85.

⁵² [1990] 2 A.C. 85 at 152, per Lord Bridge of Harwich, with whom all the other Law Lords concurred.

⁵³ [1991] 1 A.C. 603, 644.

⁵⁴ [1991] 1 A.C. 603, 643–4.

⁵⁵ [1991] 1 A.C. 603, 644.

⁵⁶ O.J.E.C. 1989, No. L. 395/34.

⁵⁷ O.J.E.C. 1992, No. L. 76/14.

⁵⁸ See Bronckers, M., “Private Enforcement of 1992: Do Trade and Industry Stand a Chance against Member States?” (1989) 26 C.M.L. Rev. 528.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Ross, M., “Beyond Francovich” (1993) 56 M.L.R. 55 at p. 62 assumes that the three conditions apply whatever instrument of Community law is concerned.Google Scholar

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⁶² See Craig, P.P., “Compensation in Public Law” (1980) 96 L.Q.R. 444.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ See Cafagno, M., “Ordinamento comunitario e responsabilità per lesione di interessi legittimi”Google Scholar, and Spena, F. Russo, “La Corte di giustizia ridefinisce la responsabilità degli Stati membri per violazione del diritto comunitario, both in Rivisia iialiana di diritto pubblico comunitario 1992,138 etseq.Google Scholar; Caranta, R., “La responsabilita oggettiva dei pubblici poteri per violazioni del diritto comunitario”, in Giurisprudenzaiialiana 1992, 1, 1, 1169Google Scholar; Cartabia, M., “Omissioni del legislatore, diritti sociali e risarcimento dei danni (A proposito della sentenza ”Francovich“ della Corte di Giustizia delle Comunità europee)”, in Giurisprudenza costituzionale 1992, II, 483Google Scholar; Barone, A. and Pardolesi, R., “II fatto illecito del legislatore”Google Scholar, and Ponzanelli, G., “L'Europa e la responsabilita civile”, both in Foro italiano 1992, IV, 145 etseq.Google Scholar

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⁶⁶ For a brief outline in English see Certoma, G.L., The Italian Legal System (London 1985), pp. 22–23Google Scholar. Aslate as 1987 a seminar devoted to the theme “ma che cos'é questo interesse legittimo?” (what is a legitimate interest?) was held among some leading scholars; but of course problems were not solved: see the proceedings published in Foro amministrativo 1988, 317 et seq., and the remarks by Angeletti, A., “L'interesse legittimo tra prowedimento amministrativo e criteri discretivi”, in Scritti in onore di M.S.Giannini, vol. III, Milan, 1988, pp. 53et seq.Google Scholar

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⁶⁸ Such a rule was even impugned before the Constitutional Court, to no avail: see decision 25 marzo, 1980 n. 35, in Giurisprudenza costituzionale 1980, I, 262.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ See, with reference to banking activity, Corte di cassazione 25 marzo 1988, in Banca, borsa, titoli di credito, 1989, II, 7.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ See Corte di cassazione 14 gennaio 1992 n. 367, in Banca, Borsa, Titoli di credito 1992, I, 393Google Scholar, with considerations by Marzona, N., “Le posizioni soggettive del risparmiatore secondo il giudicedella giurisdizione: una difficile tutela”.Google Scholar

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⁷³ See Barav, A., (1991) 141 N.L.J. 1584.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Pret. Bassano, 3 agosto 1992, unrep.

⁷⁵ Pret. Treviso, 31 ottobre 1992, unrep.

⁷⁶ Pistoia, Pret, 20 ottobre 1992, in Giustizia civile 1993, 1, 301.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Cour administrative d'appel de Paris (form. plén.), ler juillet 1992, reported in Actuality juridique-Droit administratif, 20 novembre 1992, p. 768, with critical remarks by X. Pritot.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Conseil d'Etat, Assembl´e, 28 fevrier 1992, reported in Actualité juridique-Droit administratif, 20 mars 1992, 210, with conclusions by Martine Laroque, Commissaire du gouvernement.

⁷⁹ Case 90/82 [1983] E.C.R. 2011, and Case 169/87 [1988] E.C.R. 4093.

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⁸¹ [1986] Q.B. 716. This opinion is widely shared: see Greenwood, C., “Effect of EC Directives in National Law” [1992] C.L.J. 3, at p. 6.Google Scholar

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⁸³ In Garden Cottage Foods Ltd. v. Milk Marketing Board [1984] 1 A.C. 130, the House of Lords, Lord Wilberforce dissenting, held it clearly arguable that the infringement of article 86 of the EEC Treaty by the defendant public body could give rise to an action for damages; the decision, rendered in a proceeding for interim relief, was distinguished by the majority of the Court of Appeal in Bourgoin owing to the private law nature of the act imputed to the Board.Google Scholar

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⁸⁵ [1984] 1 A.C. 130 at 145, per Lord Diplock, and at 151, per Lord Wilberforce, with whom the other Law Lords concurred.

⁸⁶ [1986] Q.B. 716 at 790.

⁸⁷ [1986] Q.B. 716 at 788.

⁸⁸ In R. v. Inland Revenue Commissioners [1982] A.C. 617 at 641, Lord Diplock observed:“progress towards a comprehensive system of administrative law … I regard as having been the greatest achievement of the English courts in my judicial life-time”.

⁸⁹ [1983] 2 A.C. 237.

⁹⁰ [1983] 2 A.C. 286.

⁹¹ On the latter decision see the remarks by Weir, T., “Governmental Liability” [1989] P.L. 40 at p. 52et seq.; Cocks was distinguished in Davy v. Spelthorne Borough Council [1984] 1 A.C. 262, an action for damages.Google Scholar

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⁹³ Legitimate (or reasonable) interest (or expectation) has been a term of art in many decisions by Common law courts: e.g., as to the use of “legitimate expectation”, Schmidt v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs [1969] 2 Ch. 149, 170, per Lord Denning; for “reasonable expectation”, Attorney-General of Hong Kong v. Ng Yeun Shiu [1983] 2 A.C. 629, at 636, per Lord Fraser of Tullybelton; in O'Reilly v. Mackman [1983] 2 A.C. 237, 275, per Lord Diplock “legitimate expectation” is opposed to “private law right” some examples of the use of “legitimate expectations” are to be found in Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister of the Civil Service [1985] 1 A.C. 374.

⁹⁴ [1991] 4 All E.R. 973; [1992] 4 All E.R. 280 (C.A.).

⁹⁵ [1949] A.C. 398.

⁹⁶ [1949] A.C. 398, at 405, per Lord Simonds; similarly at 411, per Lord du Parcq; at 413, per Lord Normand.

⁹⁷ In this light could be read Jones v. Department of Employment[1989] Q.B. 1: see also Cane, P., Tort Law and Economic Interests (Oxford 1991), 256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁹⁹ (1878) 3 App. Cas. 430.

¹⁰⁰ The House of Lords' decision in Geddis was distinguished by Goff J., as he then was, in Fellowes v. Rother District Council [1983] 1 AU E.R. 513; as Cane, P., “Ultra Vires Breach of Statutory Duty” [1981] P.L. 18, observed, in order to impose liability courts sometimes see duties where only powers are.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ [1992] 3 W.L.R. 170, 188.

¹⁰² On Kirklees see also Ross, M., op. cit. supra note 59, p. 70et. seqGoogle Scholar., and Robertson, A.,“Effective Remedies in EEC law before the House of Lords”, (1993) 109, L.Q.R. 27.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Since 1971 the rule is that the claim for damages “was established by the Treaty as an independent form of action with a particular purpose to fulfil within the system of actions”: Case 4/69, E.C.R. 1971, 336, cons. 6. But see the contrary opinion by Duffy, P., “Damages against the State: a new Remedy for Failure to Implement Community Obligations” (1992) 17 E.L. Rev. 133, at p. 135.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁵ Op. cit. supra note 61, p. 482, where references to the European Court decisions can be found.

¹⁰⁶ See Greenwood, C., op. cit. supra note 81, p. 6. In Duke v. G.E.C. Reliance Ltd. [ 1988] 1 A.C. 618, the action brought by a woman forced to retire at an age different from that applied to men was dismissed: Council Directive 76/207 was thought not to have direct (horizontal) effect against the employer, which was a private person; there was the same outcome in Finnegan v. Clowney Youth Training Programme Ltd. [1990] 2 All E.R. 546, another case related to the age for retirement, and in Webb v. EMO Air Cargo (UK) Ltd. 11992] 2 All E.R. 43 (C. A.), which decided on a dismissal of a woman on grounds related to her pregnancy. On appeal the question was referred to the European Court by the House of Lords: [1992] 4 All E.R. 929.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁸ Joint Cases C-143/88 and C-92/89, [1991] 1 E.C.R. 415; the decision was considered by Lord Goff of Chieveley in Kirklees Metropolitan Borough Council v. Wickes Building Supplies Ltd.[1992] 3 W.L.R. 170, 187.

¹⁰⁹ See cons. 27.

¹¹⁰ [1986] O.B. 716 at 783, per Parker L.J.