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THE DEMISE OF “PARASITIC ACCESSORIAL LIABILITY”: SUBSTANTIVE JUDICIAL LAW REFORM, NOT COMMON LAW HOUSEKEEPING

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2016

Findlay Stark
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Abstract

In Jogee and Ruddock, the Supreme Court/Privy Council decided that the law on secondary liability took a “wrong turn” in 1984 in the Privy Council's decision in Chan Wing-Siu. Chan Wing-Siu's contemplation/foresight-based fault element for secondary liability was alleged by the Supreme Court/Privy Council to have bucked a legal trend towards requiring that the secondary party intended to encourage or assist every one of the principal's offences. This article presents an alternative history of secondary liability that explains a wider selection of cases from 1553–1984 than were considered in Jogee and Ruddock. On this alternative account, Chan Wing-Siu was simply a more explicit and intellectually honest decision than its predecessors. If this alternative view of history is accepted, the Supreme Court/Privy Council's claim to be merely “correcting” (rather than substantively reforming) the law of secondary liability should be rejected. Doing so would make more critical a question that was side-stepped in Jogee and Ruddock, namely whether this reform should have been undertaken by the judiciary, rather than the legislature.

Keywords

criminal lawaccessoriesparasitic accessorial liabilityjoint enterprisejudicial law reform
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Articles
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The Cambridge Law Journal , Volume 75 , Issue 3 , November 2016 , pp. 550 - 579
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Copyright © Cambridge Law Journal and Contributors 2016 

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References

1 A label coined in Smith, J.C., “Criminal Liability of Accessories: Law and Law Reform” (1997) 113 L.Q.R. 453 Google Scholar, at 455. Cf. Virgo, G.J., “Joint Enterprise is Dead: Long Live Accessorial Liability” [2012] Crim.L.R. 850, at 855–56Google Scholar.

2 Procurement was ignored in Jogee, but will be mentioned at various points below.

3 Where no collateral Offence B occurred, the “common purpose” usually did no useful work: Krebs, B., “Joint Criminal Enterprise” (2010) 73 M.L.R. 578 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 588. Common purpose was, however, useful historically to found “constructive” presence when physical presence was required for aiding and abetting: e.g. R. v Passey (1836) 7 Car. & P. 282.

4 Chan Wing-Siu v R. [1985] A.C. 168.

5 R. v Powell and English [1999] 1 A.C. 1.

6 R. v Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681.

7 Ibid., at para. [3].

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9 Parts of Jogee suggest that the secondary party must himself have the mens rea of the principal's offence(s) (e.g. at [72]), others that she simply has to intend to encourage or assist the principal's offence(s) (at [90]). The latter position is preferable: see NCB v Gamble [1959] 1 Q.B. 11.

10 This history does have academic support – see Dyson, M., “Letter to the Editor” [2016] Crim.L.R. 638, at 638–39Google Scholar.

11 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [85].

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20 I.e. premeditation – Baker, Oxford History, p. 555.

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32 Ibid.

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38 R. v Stanley (1662) Kelyng J 86, 87. Cf. R. v Hyde (1672) 1 Hale P.C. 537.

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48 Hale, Historia, p. 444.

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50 R. v Ashton (1703) 12 Mod. 256, 256.

51 R. v Wallis (1703) 1 Salk. 334, 335.

52 Cf. R. v Borthwick (1779) 1 Doug. 207.

53 R. v Hodgson (1730) 1 Leach 6.

54 Ibid., at p. 6.

55 See Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [18]–[20].

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59 Cf. Toulson, “Complicity”, p. 237.

60 Foster, Crown Law, p. 353.

61 Ibid.

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65 Ibid., at para. [21].

66 E.H. East, A Treatise of the Pleas of the Crown (London 1803), 257.

67 Ibid., at p. 259.

68 Reforms of the criminal trial in the early nineteenth century facilitated a sharper focus on proof of “subjective” fault. See Duff, R.A. et al. , The Trial on Trial: Vol. 3 – Towards a Normative Theory of the Criminal Trial (Oxford 2007), 46–48 Google Scholar.

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70 R. v Dixon (1814) 3 Mau. & Sel. 11. The strength of the presumption wavered over time – see Smith, K.J.M., Lawyers, Legislators and Theorists: Developments in English Criminal Jurisprudence 1800–1957 (Oxford 1998), 166–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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75 R. v Hawkins (1828) 3 Car. & P. 392.

76 Ibid., at p. 393.

77 Redford v Birley and Others (1822) 3 Stark. 76, 97. See also 114–15.

78 Cf. Deacon, E.E., A Digest of the Criminal Law of England, vol. 2 (London 1831), 907Google Scholar (emphasising both the probability of Offence B and the defendant's “contemplation” of what the principal might do).

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80 R. v Collison (1831) 4 Car. & P. 565, 566, emphasis added.

81 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [22].

82 R. v Duffey (1830) 1 Lewin 194.

83 Ibid., at p. 194. See too the headnote in R. v Cruse (1838) 8 Car. & P. 541.

84 E.g. R. v Doddridge (1860) 8 Cox. C.C. 335.

85 R. v Scotton (1844) 5 Q.B. 493.

86 R. v Macklin and Murphy (1838) 2 Lewin 225 (recognised as the genesis of PAL in Assisting and Encouraging Crime (Law Com. C.P. No. 131, 1993), para. 1.13).

87 Ibid., at p. 226.

88 R. v Howell (1839) 9 Car. & P. 437, 448, emphasis added.

89 Ibid., at p. 450, emphasis added.

90 See e.g. R. v Bowen (1841) Car. & M. 149 (the jury indicated that the secondary party intended to encourage the collateral crime, but were not told this was a necessary ingredient of liability); R. v Harvey and Caylor (1843) 1 Cox. C.C. 21; R. v Cooper (1846) Q.B. 533.

91 See similarly Smith, “Criminal Law”, p. 292; Smith, Complicity, p. 211.

92 R. v Jackson (1857) 7 Cox C.C. 357.

93 R. v Harrington (1851) 5 Cox. C.C. 231.

94 Smith, H. and Keep, A.P.P., A Treatise on Crimes and Misdemeanors, vol. 1, 6th ed. (London 1896), 168–69Google Scholar.

95 See further R. v Price and Others (1858) 8 Cox. C.C. 96, 96.

96 R. v Franz (1861) 2 F. & F. 580.

97 Ibid., at p. 580. See also R. v Caton (1874) 12 Cox. C.C. 624, 625.

98 See also R. v Lee (1864) 4 F. & F. 63, 67.

99 R. v Luck (1862) 3 F. & F. 483, 486.

100 R. v Turner (1864) 4 F. & F. 339, 339.

101 Ibid., at p. 341.

102 R. v Skeet (1866) 4 F. & F. 931, 936.

103 See Stark, F., Culpable Carelessness: Recklessness and Negligence in the Criminal Law (Cambridge 2016), ch. 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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105 Cf. Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [24].

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109 Smith, Complicity, p. 214.

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113 See Smith, Complicity, p. 213. The importance of codes in understanding the contemporary view of secondary liability is emphasised in Simester, A.P., “The Mental Element in Complicity” (2006) 122 L.Q.R. 578, 596–98Google Scholar.

114 Seventh Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners on Criminal Law (London 1843)Google Scholar, Article 16; Second Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners on Criminal Law (London 1846)Google Scholar, Article 12. The words in square brackets are present in the 1843, but not the 1846, version.

115 Articles 13, 10.

116 Cl. 71.

117 Williams, G.L., Criminal Law: The General Part, 2nd ed. (London 1961), 402 (n. 1)Google Scholar. Cf. Smith, Complicity, p. 211.

118 E.g. Indian Penal Code (Act No. 45 of 1860), s. 111 (particularly illustration (c)); The Criminal Code Act 1899 (63 Vic. No. 9), s. 8 (Queensland).

119 The Criminal Code 1892 (55–56 Vict. c. 29), ss. 61(2), 62(2) (Canada) (cf. R. v Logan [1990] 2 S.C.R. 731); Criminal Code Act 1893 (57 Vic. No. 56), ss. 73(2), 74(2) (New Zealand).

120 Mendez [2010] EWCA Crim 516; [2011] Q.B. 876, at [29].

121 Admittedly, Collison’s requirement of a resolution to resist opposition was adopted as an aspect of the offence of rioting, but that is irrelevant to the requirements of secondary liability. See Field v Metropolitan Police Receiver [1907] 2 K.B. 853; Ford v Receiver for Metropolitan Police District [1921] 2 K.B. 344.

122 Smith, Complicity, p. 214.

123 E.g. R. v Rubens (1909) 2 Cr. App. R. 163. See Smith, “Criminal Law”, p. 294; Smith, Complicity, pp. 214–15; Williams, Criminal Law, p. 398.

124 R. v Pridmore (1913) 8 Cr. App. R. 198, 199.

125 Ibid., at pp. 202–03.

126 Ibid., at p. 203. A similarly relaxed approach existed in conspiracy cases: Kerr (1921) 15 Cr. App. R. 165.

127 Smith, “Criminal Law”, p. 294.

128 R. v Pearce (1930) 21 Cr. App. R. 79.

129 Ibid., at p. 81.

130 Ibid.

131 E.g. R. v Hyde (1672) 1 Hale P.C. 537.

132 See similarly R. v Short (1932) 23 Cr. App. R. 170.

133 Though Woolmington v DPP [1935] A.C. 462 would soon eat away at it: Smith, Lawyers, pp. 288–92. The presumption was already weakened in intoxication cases: see e.g. R. v Meade [1909] 1 K.B. 895.

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135 E.g. Disney, H.W., The Criminal Law: A Sketch of its Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. (London 1926), 17Google Scholar.

136 Questions of evidence and substantive law were, admittedly, not distinguished between neatly far into the twentieth century. See e.g. Hyam v DPP [1975] A.C. 55, critiqued in R. v Maloney [1985] A.C. 905, 928–29.

137 R. v Betts and Ridley (1931) 22 Cr. App. R. 148.

138 Ibid., at p. 155.

139 Ibid., at pp. 155–56.

140 Smith, Complicity, pp. 216–17.

141 Nor was “conditional intent”, but cf. Giles, M., “Complicity: The Problems of Joint Enterprise” [1990] Crim.L.R. 383, 383 (n. 6)Google Scholar.

142 R. v Appleby (1943) 28 Cr. App. R. 1, 6.

143 See Smith, Lawyers, pp. 297–304.

144 See n. 112 .

145 Cf. Sturge, L.F. (ed.), A Digest of the Criminal Law (Indictable Offences), 9th ed. (London 1950)Google Scholar, Article 39.

146 Davies v DPP [1954] A.C. 378, 401, emphasis added.

147 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [40]; Wilson and Ormerod, “Joint Enterprise Reform”, p. 6.

148 Cf. Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [63].

149 R. v Grant (1954) 38 Cr. App. R. 107.

150 Cf. Smith, Complicity, p. 217.

151 Homicide Act 1957, s. 1.

152 Turner, J.W.C., Russell on Crime: A Treatise of Felonies and Misdemeanors, 11th ed., vol. 1 (London 1958), 152Google Scholar. See Smith, Complicity, pp. 213–14.

153 Cf. Williams, Criminal Law, p. 397 (n. 4).

154 Ibid., at pp. 397–98.

155 R. v Spraggett [1960] Crim. L.R. 840.

156 R. v Betty (1963) 48 Cr. App. R. 6.

157 Cf. Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [30].

158 R. v Smith [1963] 1 W.L.R. 1200.

159 Ibid., at pp. 1205–06, emphasis added.

160 See R. v Rahman [2008] UKHL 45; [2009] 1 A.C. 129, at [13].

161 Cf. Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [70]–[71].

162 See Turner, J.W.C., Russell on Crime: A Treatise on Crimes and Misdemeanors, 12th ed., vol. 1 (London 1964) 144Google Scholar; Hooper, A. (ed.), Harris's Criminal Law, 21st ed. (London 1968), 78–79 Google Scholar.

163 Cf. Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [53].

164 R. v Anderson and Morris [1966] 2 Q.B. 110.

165 Ibid., at pp. 118–19.

166 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [64].

167 Cf. Wilson and Ormerod, “Joint Enterprise Reform”, p. 8 (arguing that Anderson and Morris involved establishing “from an objective point of view, [what the secondary party] was signing up to”).

168 Anderson and Morris, [1966] 2 Q.B. 110, 120, emphasis added.

169 Criminal Justice Act 1967, s. 8.

170 Criminal Law Act 1967, s. 1.

171 R. v Lovesay [1970] 1 Q.B. 352.

172 Ibid., at p. 356.

173 Ibid. See further R. v Dunbar [1988] Crim. L.R. 693. Cf. Smith, Complicity, p. 219.

174 See e.g. Smith, J.C. and Hogan, B., Criminal Law, 2nd ed. (London 1969), 88Google Scholar; Smith, J.C. and Hogan, B., Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (London 1973), 102, 105Google Scholar.

175 R. v Reid (1976) 62 Cr. App. R. 109, 112, emphasis added.

176 Though, again, in Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [72], an intention to encourage or assist murder and the mens rea of murder are elided.

177 J.C. Smith [1976] Crim. L.R. 570, 571.

178 Citing Betts and Ridley (1930) 22 Cr. App. R. 148.

179 Smith, J.C. and Hogan, B., Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (London 1973), 102–05Google Scholar. Cf. DPP for Northern Ireland v Maxwell [1978] 1 W.L.R. 1350, 1361 (“[S] must have contemplated that a violent attack of some kind was to be made … When he obeyed the order he must therefore have intended to assist in carrying out such an attack”).

180 R. v Penfold (1980) 71 Cr. App. R. 4.

181 Ibid., at p. 8.

182 Cf. Ibbetson, D.J., “The Mental Element in Complicity” (1982) 2 O.J.L.S. 287, 287Google Scholar.

183 R. v Johns (1980) 143 C.L.R. 108.

184 Ibid., at p. 113.

185 Ibid., at p. 125.

186 Ibid., at pp. 118–19, citing Howard, C., Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Sydney 1977), 276.Google Scholar Cf. R. v Jubb and Rigby [1984] Crim. L.R. 616.

187 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [44]. See also at [67].

188 See the discussion in ibid., at para. [43].

189 Ibid., at para. [44].

190 Ibid., at para. [87].

191 Ibid., at para. [67].

192 The Australian case of R. v Miller (1980) 1 A. Crim. R. 165 was also cited, but is irrelevant: the parties’ common purpose was lawful.

193 Williams, G., Textbook of Criminal Law, 2nd ed. (London 1983), 352Google Scholar, emphasis added (cf. the comments about express agreements and untrustworthy principals at 355). The difference between knowing x may happen and foreseeing x might happen is unaddressed.

194 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [62].

195 Ibid., at para. [74].

196 Ibid., at para. [79].

197 Chan Wing-Siu [1985] A.C. 168, 175.

198 Ibid., at 170–71.

199 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [65]–[66]. Cf. Krebs, B., “ Mens Rea in Joint Enterprise: A Role for Endorsement?” (2015) 74 C.L.J. 480, 493–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

200 Chan Wing-Siu [1985] A.C. 168, 175.

201 Powell and English [1999] 1 A.C. 1 (seen by Smith as a “valuable clarification”: [1998] Crim. L.R. 48, 49).

202 Ibid., at pp. 10–11.

203 [1984] Crim. L.R. 550. See similarly Cowley, D., “Complicity: Liability for Unintended Consequences” (1985) 49 J.Crim.L. 38, 38Google Scholar.

204 Smith, “Accessories”, p. 456. See Gnango [2010] EWCA Crim 1691; [2011] 1 W.L.R. 1414, at [67].

205 Spencer, J.R., “On Contemplating the Range of Contemplation” [1985] C.L.J. 8, 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

206 Spencer, J.R., “ Jogee – the ‘Parasite’ Excised” [2016] 3 Arch. Rev. 4, 4Google Scholar.

207 Stephen, M., Richardson, P.J. and Buzzard, J.H., Archbold's Pleading, Evidence and Practice in Criminal Cases, 42nd ed. (London 1985)Google Scholar, para. 20.16. Cf. para. 29.3: “The cases on [joint enterprise] are not easy to reconcile.”

208 E.g. R. v Smith [1988] Crim. L.R. 616.

209 Ward (1987) 85 Cr. App. R. 71; R. v Slack [1989] Q.B. 775 (though the court's analysis is clouded by talk of “conditional intention”); R. v Hyde [1991] 1 Q.B. 134. See further Virgo, G.J., “Accessory to Murder – Foresight or Intention?” (1990) 49 C.L.J. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

210 Choo, A.L.T., “Joint Unlawful Enterprises and Murder” (1992) 55 M.L.R 870, 871CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

211 Dennis, I., “The Mental Element for Accessories” in Smith, P. (ed.), Criminal Law: Essays in Honour of J.C. Smith (London 1987), 40, pp. 43–44 Google Scholar, 56–58, 61. See also Wilson and Ormerod, “Joint Enterprise Reform”.

212 Smith, Complicity, p. 220. See similarly Assisting and Encouraging Crime (Law Com. C.P. No. 131, 1993), para. 2.113; Giles, “Joint Enterprise”, pp. 385–86.

213 See further Wilson and Ormerod, “Joint Enterprise Reform”, at 26, citing the departures from Hyam v DPP [1975] A.C. 55 (on murder) and R. v Caldwell [1982] A.C. 341 (on recklessness) as examples of previous judicially created injustices being resolved by the courts. Yet, Hyam was a decision on far thinner doctrinal ice than Chan Wing-Siu and stood for a far shorter time, and Caldwell straightforwardly misinterpreted Parliament's intention.

214 See Supreme Court Practice Direction 3.1.3; Practice Statement (Judicial Precedent) [1966] 1 W.L.R. 1234.

215 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [85].

216 See C v DPP [1996] 1 A.C. 1; F. Stark, “R. v Howe (1987)” in P. Handler, H. Mares and I. Williams (eds.), Landmark Cases in Criminal Law (Oxford, forthcoming).

217 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [3].

218 See most recently Participating in Crime (Law Com. No. 305, 2007) paras. 3.123–3.162.

219 The Government has not responded positively to prompts to reform the law: see Krebs, “Endorsement”, p. 482.

220 Jogee and Ruddock [2016] UKSC 8; [2016] UKPC 7; [2016] 2 W.L.R. 681, at [81]–[86].