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Holy Wisdom and British foreign policy, 1918–1922: the St. Sophia redemption agitation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2016

Erik Goldstein
Erik Goldstein*
Affiliation:
Department of International Studies, University of Birmingham
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Extract

As the Ottoman Empire tottered towards its final collapse at the end of the First World War the fate of its various territorial components aroused the interest not only of other states, but of interest groups within those states. Britain in particular revealed a strong concern with this subject, having long been interested in the Eastern Mediterranean. The end of the Ottoman Empire saw the legendary Lawrence of Arabia grasping the Arab lands, various secret treaties with the other Great Powers disposed of much of Anatolia, and the future of Turkish rule over Constantinople, that much sought after city, now hung in the balance. The final fate of the city would be decided at the postwar Paris Peace Conference. Of all of the spoils of the Ottomans none evoked such passions as that inspired by Constantinople — Byzantium, the Second Rome. If any building could epitomise the Europeans’ vision of this city it was the St Sophia, the Church of the Holy Wisdom, which since the fall of Constantinople in 1453 had been a mosque. With the end of Ottoman dominance an opportunity was seen by some of symbolically completing a crusade begun centuries before, with the expulsion of the Turks, and Islam, from Europe. Nothing could so symbolise a change of control at Constantinople than the reconversion of St Sophia into a church. This found support from those who wished to see the Turk expelled bag and baggage from Europe.

Type
Articles:
Information
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies , Volume 15 , 1991 , pp. 36 - 65
Copyright
Copyright © The Centre for Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Greek Studies, University of Birmingham 1991

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References

The author is indebted to Professor George J. Marcopoulos of Tufts University and Gerald Studdert-Kennedy of the University of Birmingham for their comments on this paper. Access to and permission to quote from the papers of the St Sophia Redemption Committee was made possible by courtesy of The Revd A.T. John Salter, A.K.C., General Secretary of the Anglican & Eastern Churches Association.

1. Foreign Relations of the United States: Paris Peace Conference, vol. 5, p.756.

2. SirHirtzel, Arthur, The Church, The Empire, and The World (London 1919).Google Scholar

3. On the problems of religion and the Indian Empire see, Studdert-Kennedy, Gerald, British Christians, Indian Nationalists and the Raj (Oxford 1990).Google Scholar

4. Goldstein, Erik, ‘Great Britain and Greater Greece, 1917–1920’, Historical Journal 32/2 (1989), 339–56.Google Scholar

5. FO 371/3417/192762/200096. Minute by Crowe, 7 Dec 1918. Foreign Office Papers, Public Record Office, London.

6. FO 371/4355/f68/PC68.

7. SirPears, Edwin quoted in Douglas, J.A., The Redemption of Saint Sophia, 4th ed. (1920) 5.Google Scholar

8. J.A. Douglas, ‘The Redemption of S. Sophia’ The Treasury (Feb. 1919) 360.

9. FO 608/37/92/1/1/4392. Minute by Nicolson, 15 Mar. 1919. His comment was made in the context of the debate over the Asia Minor settlement.

10. FO 608/52/120/1/3/316. Minute by Crowe, 22 Jan. 1919.

11. FO 371/3417/192762/200096. Minute by Crowe, 7 Dec. 1918.

12. Editorial, ‘Disposing of Turkey’, New York Times, 15 May 1919.

13. ‘The Editor’s Causerie’, The Balkan Review 1/2 (Mar. 1919) 151–2.

14. Lucas, Bernard, The Empire of Christ (London 1907) 128.Google Scholar

15. Douglas, The Redemption of S. Sophia (see n. 8 earlier) 360.

16. FO 371/3417/192762/200096. Gaselee, 4 Dec. 1918.

17. FO 371/3417/f192762/192762. Granville to Foreign Office, 20 Nov. 1918.

18. Ibid., Minute by Hardings.

19. Montagu to Balfour, 25 Nov. 1919. Montagu 694. Montagu Papers, Trinity College, Cambridge.

20. FO 371/3417/f192762/196919. Minute by Crowe, 30 Nov. 1918.

21. FO 371/3417/f192762/196919. Minute by Toynbee, 5 Dec. 1918.

22. Trubetskoy, E.N., Saint Sophia: Russia’s Hope and Calling (London 1916).Google Scholar

23. Stephen Gaselee (1882–1943). Educated Eton, King’s College, Cambridge; temporary clerk, Foreign Office, 1916–19; librarian at the Foreign Office, 1920–43; C.M.G., 1918; K.C.M.G., 1935. Author of Stories From the Christian East (1918).

Gow, A.S.F.. ‘Sir Stephen Gaselee, K.C.M.G.’, Proceedings of the British Academy 29 (1943) 441–61.Google Scholar

24. The evidence for identifying Gaselee as Fynes-Clinton’s source inside the Foreign Office is based on the fact that he was the only member of that office who had links with Fynes-Clinton, that Fynes-Clinton frequently referred to a friend inside the office, and that Gaslee had been busily trying on his own to stir up interest within Whitehall about St Sophia. See Fynes-Clinton to Archbishop of Canterbury, 15 Nov. 1918, Davidson Papers 32. Davidson Papers, Lambeth Palace Library. Minute by Gaselee on conversation with Archbishop of Canterbury, 4 Dec. 1918, FO 371/3417/192762/20096. Fynes-Clinton to Hoare, 1 March 1919, Templewood Papers 1.8. Templewood Papers, University Library, Cambridge.

25. Henry Joy Fynes-Clinton (1875–1959). Educ. King’s Sch., Canterbury; Trinity Coll., Oxford; Ely Theological Coll. Founder of Anglican and Eastern Churches Assoc, and general secretary, 1906–20; General Secretary to Archbishop of Canterbury’s Eastern Churches Cttee, 1920–23; Director of the Catholic League, Fellow of College of Guardians of Walsingham. Fellow of the Royal Empire Society. Serbian Order of St Sava, 1st class, 1918; Greek Order of George I, 3rd class, 1918; Archpriest’s Cross & cincture of Serbian Church, 1922; Russian archpriest’s cross, 1930.

26. The Serbs were the more generous with an award of the Order of St Sava first class, while the Greeks only bestowed the Order of St George 3rd class.

27. James Bryce, 1st viscount (1838–1922). Educated Trinity Coll., Oxford, B.A., 1862; Barrister, Lincoln’s Inn, 1867; Regius Prof, of Civil Law, Oxford, 1870–93; M.P., 1880–1907; Under secretary for foreign affairs, 1886; ambassador to Washington, 1907–13; created viscount, 1914.

28. Sir Henry Lunn (1859–1939). Educated Dublin University, M.A., B.Ch., M.D.; Indian Medical Missionary, 1887; invalided home, 1888; travelled with Lord Bryce, 1906; Editor Review of the Churches: 1891–97, 1923–30.

29. Headlam to Headlam-Morley, 3 Dec. 1918. FO 371/3417/f192762/202226.

30. Rev. John Albert Douglas. Educated Dulwich Coll.; ordained, 1894; chaplain British Embassy, Constantinople, 1903–04; vicar of St Luke’s, Camberwell, 1909–33; rector of St Michael Paternoster Royal, 1933–53; Principal, Society of the Faith, 1906–56; deputy vice-chancellor, University of London, 1931.

31. Minutes of the meetings of the committee, with lists of members can be found in the papers of the St Sophia Redemption Committee (hereinafter cited as SSRC). Copies of some documents are also in Templewood 1.8.

Rev. Frederick Meyer (1847–1929). Educated Regent’s Park Baptist College; president National Federation of Free Churches, 1904, 1920; minister, Christ Church, Westminster Bridge, 1892–1907, 1915–21.

Rt Rev Msgr Bidwell (d.1930). Educated King’s College, London and Accademia de nobli Ecclesiastici, Rome; Bishop Auxilliary to Archbishop of Westminster (Cardinal Bourne), 1917–30.

32. Coats to Fynes-Clinton, 4 Jan. 1919; Fynes-Clinton to Coats, 9 Jan. 1919; Coats to Fynes-Clinton, 13 Jan. 1919; T.W. Hunter for Bidwell to Fynes-Clinton, 14 Jan. 1919. SSRC.

33. Headlam to Headlam-Morley, 3 Dec. 1918. FO 371/3417/f192762/202226.

34. Douglas, The Redemption of S. Sophia, 368.

35. FO 371/4166/f717/61836. Mr Harrison (Golders Green) to Balfour, 12 Apr. 1919.

36. Douglas, ‘Cardinal Gaspari and St Sophia’, The Church Times (2 May 1919).

37. Letter by Douglas, 22 May 1919, Guardian.

38. Ibid.

39. Davidson to Bishop of London, 19 Dec. 1918. Davidson 32.

Randall Thomas Davidson (1848–1930). Educ. Harrow; Trinity Coll., Oxford. Ordained, 1874. Married Edith Tait, dau. of Archbishop of Canterbury, 1878; Dean of Windsor and Domestic Chaplain to Queen Victoria, 1883–91; Bishop of Rochester, 1891–95, Winchester, 1985–1903, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1903–28; Baron Davidson of Lambeth, 1928.

40. 4 Dec. 1918. Minutes by Gaselee reporting conservation with archbishop. FO 371/3417/192762/200096.

41. FO 371/3417/192762/200096. Minute by Paget, 13 Dec. 1918.

42. Ibid. Minute by Nicolson.

43. Davidson 32.

44. Rev. Douglas, J. A., The Redemption of Saint Sophia: An Historical & Political Account of the Subject (London 1919) 83.Google Scholar

45. Letter of Lord Bryce, 21 Mar. 1919, reprinted in The Church Times, 28 Mar. 1919.

46. The Return of St Sophia to Christendom’, substance of a speech by R.M. Burrows delivered at Cannon St., 23 Jan. 1919. Church Times, 24 Jan. 1919.

47. FO 608/77/342/1/1/807. Bryce to Toynbee, 24 Jan. 1919.

48. Ibid. Minute by Vansittart. 28 Jan. 1919.

49. Douglas, ‘The Redemption of S. Sophia’, The Treasury, p.360.

50. Fynes-Clinton to Bryce, 7 Feb. 1919. SSRC.

51. Undated note by Davidson. Davidson 32.

52. Various accounts exist of this meeting, from which the events can be pieced together and to some extent corroborated. Undated note by Archbishop Davidson, Davidson Papers 32; minute by Curzon, 18 Feb 1919, FO 371/4166/f717/28780; report in the Guardian, 27 Feb 1919.

53. Minutes of meeting of St Sophia Redemption Committee, 3 Jan. 1919. Templewood Papers 1.8.

54. Douglas to Riley, 20 Feb. 1919, Templewood 1.8.

55. 20 Feb. 1919, Morning Post, p.4.

56. Hoare to Riley, 12 Mar., 1919. Templewood 1.8.

57. Webb to Foreign Office, 30 Dec. 1918. FO 371/4166/f717/717.

58. FO 371/4166/f717/28780.

59. Bryce to Hoare, 21 Feb. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

60. Douglas to Hoare, 24 Feb. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

61. Douglas to Hoare, 1 Mar. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

62. Fynes-Clinton to Hoare, 28 Feb. 1919. Templewood 1.8. Also in SSRC.

63. Minute of 21 Feb. 1919, FO 371/4166/717/40021.

64. Fynes-Clinton to Lord Beauchamp, 28 Feb. 1919. SSRC.

65. FO 371/4166/f717/40021. Hoare to Riley, 12 Mar. 1919, Templewood 1.8.

66. Letter by Bryce, 21 Mar. 1919 read at a St Sophia Redemption meeting at St Jude on the Hill, Hampstead, and printed in The Church Times 28 Mar. 1919.

67. Douglas to Hoare, 24 Feb. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

68. Douglas to Hoare, 26 Feb. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

69. Riley to Hoare, 13 Mar. 1919. Templewood 1.8.

70. Hoare to Riley, 12 Mar. 1919. Templewood 1.8. The memorial was signed by among others the archbishops of Canterbury, York, Armagh, and Dublin, the bishops of London and Winchester, and Lords Bryce and Crewe. It was published in the Guardian, 23 Mar. 1919.

71. General letter to members, 21 Mar. 1919. Davidson 32.

72. Montagu 690. Draft letter dated Feb. 1919.

73. Montagu 689–691.

74. Montagu 694. Montagu to Balfour, 25 Nov. 1918.

75. Douglas, The Redemption of Saint Sophia, p.73.

76. Church Times, 31 Jan. 1919.

77. FO 371/4166/f717/28780. Minute by Paget, 18 Feb. 1919.

78. FO to Webb, 2 Jan. 1919. FO 371/3421/f209543/209543.

79. Calthorpe to FO, 21 Apr. 1919, FO 371/4166/H17/62772. Webb to FO, 24 Apr. 1919, FO 371/4166/f717/63981.

80. FO 371/4153/f4094/40494.

81. Wedgewood to Cadogan, 17 Mar. 1919. FO 371/4166/f717/45274.

82. Balfour to Montagu, 26 Nov. 1918. Montagu Papers 693.

83. Balfour to Curzon, 2 Apr. 1919. FO 371/4166/H17/52951.

84. Capt LaFontaine, Control Officer, Kidikevy, 5 Jun. 1919. FO 371/4142/f71/96939. Also in India Office L/P&S/11/154/3872. India Office Library, London.

85. FO 371/5190/f550/E2959.

86. FO 371/5190/f550/E3777. War Office to Foreign Office, 26 Apr. 1920. This view was based on the expressed views of the India Office.

87. Douglas, J.A., ‘The Importance of St Sophia’, The Christian East 1/2 (June 1920) 71–80 Google Scholar. Written after the terms were announced, but before the formal signing.