¹ Some recent works on Ford include Yacob, Shakila, “Ford's Investment in Colonial Malaya, 1926–1957,” Business History Review 83 (Winter 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tolliday, Steven, “The Origins of Ford of Europe: From Multidomestic to Transnational Corporation, 1903–1976,” in Ford, 1903–2003: The European History, ed. Bonin, Hubert, Lung, Yannick, and Tolliday, Steven (Paris, 2003)Google Scholar; and Anastakis, Dimitry, “From Independence to Integration: The Corporate Evolution of the Ford Motor Company in Canada,” Business History Review 78 (Summer 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On GM, see Freeland, Robert F., The Struggle for Control of the Modern Corporation: Organizational Change at General Motors, 1924–1970 (New York, 2006)Google Scholar. The best source for examining US overseas efforts in Europe is Laux, James, The European Automobile Market (New York, 1992)Google Scholar. Laux translated a well-prepared French outlook by Bardou, Jean Pierreet al., The Automobile Revolution: The Impact of an Industry (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982)Google Scholar. Wilkins, Mira and Hill's, FrankAmerican Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents (Detroit, 1964)Google Scholar provides excellent context and comparisons. Numerous histories of firms have been written, but rarely translated, and often difficult to find in US libraries. One worth the effort is Moutet's, AiméeLes logiques de l'entreprise: La rationalisation dans l'industrie française de l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1997)Google Scholar. General Motors has been the focus of an enormous body of scholarship. Its founding and early years is examined fully in Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury's book on du Pont, Pierre S., Pierre S. du Pont and the Making of the Modern Corporation (New York, 1971)Google Scholar. Sloan, Alfred Jr., My Years with General Motors (Garden City, N.Y., 1964)Google Scholar describes the formative years for GM's export division, the search for an appropriate administrative structure, and strategy for overseas. Especially interesting yet rarely mentioned is a November 1945 Fortune article, “General Motors Overseas,” on GM's decades overseas from a postwar vantage point.

² Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 1Google Scholar.

³ Anastakis, , “From Independence to Integration,” 216, 220Google Scholar.

⁴ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 435Google Scholar.

⁵ Ibid., 40.

⁶ See Gustin, Lawrence R., Billy Durant: Creator of General Motors (Grand Rapids, 1973)Google Scholar.

⁷ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 7Google Scholar. Heany Company's primary value was a tungsten lamp patent–later thrown out by the US Patent Office.

⁸ Pound, Arthur, The Turning Wheel: The Story of General Motors through Twenty-Five Years, 1908–1933 (New York, 1934), 132Google Scholar.

⁹ A brief discussion of the Seligman firm appears in McCraw, Thomas K., “Immigrant Entrepreneurs in US Financial History, 1775–1914,” Capitalism and Society 5, no. 1 (2010): 14–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Albert Strauss to Seligman Brothers (London), 30 Sept. 1910, Letter Book 9, 136, J. & W. Seligman Archives, Harry W. Bass Business History Collection, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla. (hereafter, SA).

¹¹ Strauss to Storrow, 4 Jan. 1911, Letter Book 9, 291, SA. Emory W. Clark was a Detroit banker.

¹² Strauss to Neal, 22 June 1911, Letter Book 10, 605, SA.

¹³ Pound, , The Turning Wheel, 245Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Strauss to Neal, 2 Nov. 1912, Letter Book 14, 208 and Strauss to Neal, 20 Aug. 1913, Letter Book 15, 232 (both SA).

¹⁵ Strauss to Neal, 7 Feb. 1912, Letter Book 12, 246; Strauss to Neal, 21 Oct. 1912, Letter Book 14, 168; and Strauss to James Storrow, 12 Dec. 1910, Letter Book 9, 248 (all SA).

¹⁶ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 6–7Google Scholar. John McDonald wrote Sloan's autobiography from Sloan's recollections, interviews, and archival research. He credited Catharine Stevens as coeditor for her work in managing the project. Among some twenty-plus research assistants, the only one he mentioned was Alfred D. Chandler Jr., then an assistant professor of history at MIT. Chandler later received the Pulitzer Prize and the Bancroft Prize in American history for his influential studies of industrial enterprise. For the controversy surrounding the book, see McDonald, John, A Ghost's Memoir: The Making of Alfred P. Sloan's My Years with General Motors (Cambridge, Mass., 2002)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Brown, Donaldson, Some Reminiscences of an Industrialist (Easton, Penn., 1975), 37–38Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Sloan's reorganization plan is portrayed in Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 136–37Google Scholar; and Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., ed., Giant Enterprise: Ford, General Motors, and the Automobile Industry (New York, 1964), 116–17Google Scholar. An excellent account of the Durant and Pierre S. du Pont years is Chandler and Salsbury, Pierre S. du Pont and the Making of the Modern Corporation, part 4.

¹⁹ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 57Google Scholar.

²⁰ Sloan, Alfred P. Jr., “The Most Important Thing I Ever Learned about Management,” System 46 (1924): 137–38Google Scholar.

²¹ Mooney's bachelor's degree was awarded retroactively in 1923; he received a mechanical engineering degree for writing “The Science of Industrial Organization” in 1929; and was granted an honorary doctorate in engineering after giving Case Institute's commencement address in 1935. Folder 5, box 8, James D. Mooney Papers, Case Western Reserve University Archives, Cleveland, Ohio. Mooney wrote extensively on the overseas automobile industry. Important published sources include: Advertising the Technical Product (with Sloan, Clifford Alexander) (New York, 1920)Google Scholar; “Selling the Automobile Overseas: How General Motors' Export Business Is Handled,” Management and Administration 8 (July 1924): 27–32Google Scholar; “The Automobile Remodeling Life: As a Factor in the Age of Communication, Motor Transportation Is Spreading Civilization throughout the World,” New York Times, 3 Mar. 1929, XX14Google Scholar; “Economic Requirements of Automotive Road Vehicles Abroad,” paper presented at the annual meeting, Society of Automotive Engineers, Detroit, 15–18 Jan. 1929Google Scholar; Onward Industry! The Principles of Organization and Their Significance to Modern Industry (with Reiley, Alan C.) (New York, 1931)Google Scholar; “Some Observations upon American Foreign Trade,” speech before the New York Board of Trade, New York City, 8 Apr. 1931Google Scholar; The New Capitalism (New York, 1934)Google Scholar; “Economic Values of International Trade,” address before the Conference of Seaport Cities, Waldorf-Astoria, New York, N.Y., 10 June 1935Google Scholar; “The Principles of Organization,” in Papers on the Science of Administration, ed. Gulick, Luther Halsey and Urwick, Lyndall F. (New York, 1937)Google Scholar, which was reprinted in Ideas and Issues in Public Administration: A Book of Readings, ed. Waldo, Dwight (New York, 1953)Google Scholar; and “War or Peace in America? What Should Be Our Position Today?” Vital Speeches of the Day, 6 (15 June 1940): 542Google Scholar. Key unpublished sources include: “The Science of Industrial Organization,” thesis, Case School of Applied Science, 1929, Kelvin Smith Library, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OhioGoogle Scholar; “Lessons in War and Peace,” the James D. Mooney Papers, Special Collections, Georgetown University Library, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.; “Background to a Strange Odyssey,” Mooney's, James D. unpublished memoir (ca. 1947)Google Scholar, with correspondence (1947 to 1955) between Louis D. Lochner, James D. Mooney, and others concerning attempts to publish the manuscript. The original memoir is in the Louis D. Lochner papers, Wisconsin Historical Society Archives, Madison, Wisc. and a photocopy is at the Harry W. Bass Business History Collection, Bizzell Memorial Library, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.

²² Mooney, James D., “Background to a Strange Odyssey,” unpublished autobiography (ca. 1947), US manuscript 21 AF, box 1, folder 39, Louis Lochner Papers, Wisconsin State Historical Society, Madison, WiscGoogle Scholar.

²³ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 97Google Scholar.

²⁴ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 317Google Scholar.

²⁵ Ibid., 314–16.

²⁶ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 110Google Scholar.

²⁷ Mooney, James D., “Selling the Automobile Overseas: How General Motors' Export Business is Handled,” Management and Administration 8 (July 1924): 27–32Google Scholar. Since 1907 Bedford Motor Company of Bedfordshire, England made Bedford trucks on a Buick chassis. Later, Bedford Trucks became part of Vauxhall and made the VX Model for export. See Hartnett, Laurence J., Big Wheels and Little Wheels (London, 1965), 42Google Scholar.

²⁸ Rae, John B., American Automobile Manufacturers: The First Forty Years (New York, 1959), 154Google Scholar.

²⁹ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 319Google Scholar.

³⁰ Holden, Len, Vauxhall Motors and the Luton Economy, 1900–2002 (Bedford, U.K., 2002)Google Scholar. The British press resented the American takeover of Vauxhall. Consequently, GM maintained a low profile in keeping the Vauxhall brand and employing a British Managing Director, Charles Bartlett.

³¹ Wilkins, Mira, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³² Ibid., 148.

³³ Yacob, , “Ford's Investment in Colonial Malaya, 1926–1957,” 799Google Scholar.

³⁴ Yacob, Shakila, The United States and the Malaysian Economy (London, 2008), 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Thwarted, Mooney opened an assembly plant in Batavia (modern Indonesia) and a sales of-fice in Singapore to offset British protectionism. Yacob suggests GM would have succeeded if their application had been sent to GM's Canadian office or a British subsidiary.

³⁵ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 136Google Scholar.

³⁶ Tolliday, , “The Origins of Ford of Europe,” 165Google Scholar.

³⁷ Nevins, Allan and Hill, Frank Ernest, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933–1962, vol. 3 (New York, 1963), Appendix 1Google Scholar.

³⁸ Tolliday, , “The Origins of Ford of Europe,” 160Google Scholar.

³⁹ Sorensen, Charles E., My Forty Years with Ford (New York, 1956), 225Google Scholar. “Motor Industry Hails New Ford,” New York Times, 4 Dec. 1927, 13Google Scholar, mentions this break with tradition by “more artistic bodies in a variety of color tones.” Allan Nevins and Frank Ernest Hill wrote by 1940 Mercury offered eight colors; Lincoln nine; and the Model A could be purchased in “black, cloud-mist gray, and Lyon blue,” Nevins, and Hill, , Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 131Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 203nGoogle Scholar.

⁴¹ Anastakis, , “From Independence to Integration,” 222Google Scholar.

⁴² Nevins, and Hill, , Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933–1962, 81Google Scholar.

⁴³ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 316Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ “General Motors Overseas,” Fortune 32 (Nov. 1945): 129Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Mooney, James D. and Reiley, Alan C., Onward Industry! The Principles of Organization and their Significance to Modern Industry (New York, 1931), xixGoogle Scholar. Reiley was a Rutgers-educated historian and former Remington Typewriter executive who added historical examples from ancient governments, the Catholic Church, and the military.

⁴⁶ Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 315Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Clausewitz, Karl von, On War (New York, 1943)Google Scholar; Emerson, Harrington, Efficiency as a Basis for Operations and Wages (New York, 1911)Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., “The Railroads: Pioneers in Modern Management,” Business History Review 39 (Spring 1965): 16–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁹ Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., “Management Decentralization: A Historical Analysis,” Business History Review 30 (June 1956): 122–28, 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Later, Westinghouse and Goodrich would reorganize around products.

⁵⁰ Chandler, , Strategy and Structure, 286–87Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Donaldson Brown made a similar point in a l927 presentation to the American Management Association. See Brown, Donaldson, “Centralized Control with Decentralized Responsibilities” in Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., ed., Managerial Innovation at General Motors (New York, l979), 3Google Scholar.

⁵² Mooney, , “The Science of Industrial Organization” (1929), 68Google Scholar. Mooney was inconsistent in naming his areas of responsibility; when he wrote this in 1929, GM's Annual Report referred to this as the GM Export Company, not a division.

⁵³ Channon, Derek F., The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprise (Boston, 1973), 108Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Wertenbaker, Charles, “The World and Jim Mooney,” Saturday Evening Post, 30 Oct. 1937, 140Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Bradley, Albert and American Management Association, “Setting up a Forecasting Program,” Annual Convention Series No. 41 (New York, 1926), 3Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Ibid., 13.

⁵⁷ Forbes, B. C., “How America's Biggest Export Job Is Handled,” Forbes 23 (15 May 1929): 46Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Johnson, H. Thomas, “Management Accounting in an Early Multidivisional Organization: General Motors in the 1920s,” Business History Review 52 (Winter 1978): 509Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Mooney, , “Selling the Automobile Overseas,” 31Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Chandler, , “Management Decentralization,” 112n2Google Scholar.

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⁶² Likert, Rensis, New Patterns of Management (New York, 1961), 113–15, 181Google Scholar.

⁶³ Fred Fisher and Charles Fisher were on the Executive Committee; Lawrence Fisher headed the Cadillac Division for a period of time.

⁶⁴ For other examples, see the fold-out following page 564 in Chandler and Salsbury, Pierre S. du Pont and the Making of the Modern Organization; Sloan, , My Years with General Motors, 7Google Scholar. Chandler wrote that Sloan recognized the need for interdivisional committees as a communication channel to keep “the general executives, staff specialists, and operating managers in contact with one another,” Strategy and Structure, 307.

⁶⁵ Quoted in Ketchum, Richard M., Will Rogers: His Life and Times (New York, 1971), 229Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 256–57, 261Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ GM and Ford had assembly plants in Japan and it has been suggested these sites were used to advance Japan's technology and train workers. This “may even have benefited the Japanese economy” as it emerged into an international force in the automobile market after World War II. See Foreman-Peck, James, “The American Challenge of the Twenties: Multinationals and the European Motor Industry,” Journal of Economic History 42 (Dec. 1982): 880–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁰ Freeland, , The Struggle for Control of the Modern Corporation, 128Google Scholar.

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⁷³ Knudsen was Henry Ford's head of production until he advocated abandoning the Model T. Sloan hired Knudsen in 1922 to head the Chevrolet Division. See Beasley, Norman, Knudsen: A Biography (New York, 1947)Google Scholar. When Alfred Chandler was assisting in the preparation of Sloan's autobiography, Sloan commented that “Henry Ford should be given as much credit as Sloan himself for the success of General Motors in the 1920s and 1930s” because of Ford's dismissal of outstanding executives such as Knudsen. Quoted in Chandler, , Scale and Scope, 599, 831, n. 2Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ “Alfred P. Sloan, Jr.: Chairman,” Fortune 17 (Apr. 1938): 76–77Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ Howard, a 1921 graduate of Harvard Business School, became a GM VP in 1939 and was hired by Henry Ford II after World War II to head Ford's overseas operations. See Tolliday, Steven, “The Origins of Ford of Europe,” 171Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 244–45Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Sorensen, , My Forty Years with Ford, 216Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Wilkins, and Hill, , American Business Abroad, 247Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ Nevins, and Hill, , Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 168–69Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Sorensen, , My Forty Years with Ford, 317Google Scholar.

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⁸² Tolliday, , “The Origins of Ford of Europe,” 163Google Scholar.

⁸³ “British Buy Nazi Cars,” Business Week 25 (25 June 1938): 41Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ General Motors Corporation, Annual Report for 1935, 19Google Scholar; and Annual Report for January to July, 1939, 22Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ “Reich Cars Flood Britain,” New York Times, 11 May 1938, 50Google Scholar; “Reich Exports Alarm British Auto Makers,” New York Times, 14 Aug. 1938, 12Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ In 1951, GM was able to collect $261,061 (.0166 per penny) of its non-repatriated earnings. Turner, Henry A. Jr., General Motors and the Nazis: The Struggle for Control of Opel, Europe's Biggest Car Maker (New Haven, 2005), 10–11, 149Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ For examples, see footnote 20 above.

⁸⁸ Mooney, James D., “Foreign Trade and Our National Welfare,” Vital Speeches of the Day, 15 June 1936, 586Google Scholar. Also: Boxes 2 and 3, James D. Mooney Papers, Special Collections, Georgetown University Library, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

⁸⁹ Also present were Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring, and Hjalmar Schacht, Minister of Economics and Head of the Reichsbank. Wilkins, Mira, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914–1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 189CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁹⁴ Ibid., 182.

⁹⁵ Ibid., 97n4.

⁹⁶ “James D. Mooney, Consultant, Dies,” New York Times, 22 Sept. 1957, 85Google Scholar.

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