¹ Galambos, Louis, “The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in Modern American History,” Business History Review, 44 (Autumn, 1970), 279–290CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Paul Koistinen is the chief exception to this rule among historians. See Koistinen, Paul A. C., “The ‘Industrial-Military Complex’ in Historical Perspective: World War I,” Business History Review XLIV (Winter, 1967), 378–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The ‘Industrial-Military Complex’ in Historical Perspective: The Inter-War Years,” Journal of American History, LVI (March, 1970), 819–839Google Scholar; “Mobilizing the World War II Economy: Labor and the Industrial-Military Alliance,” Pacific Historical Review, XLII (November, 1973), 443–478Google Scholar. See also Cooling, Benjamin F., ed., War Business and American Society: Historical Perspectives on the Military-Industrial Complex (Port Washington, N.Y., 1977)Google Scholar.

² From Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., ed., The Military-Industrial Complex (New York, 1972), 206.Google Scholar

³ Ibid.

⁴ Meeker, Thomas A. provides a useful bibliography in The Military-Industrial Complex: A Source Guide to the Issues of Defense Spending and Policy Control (Los Angeles, 1973)Google Scholar. On the issue of definitions, metaphors, and typologies, see Stackhouse, Max L., The Ethics of Necropolis (Boston, 1971), 25–42Google Scholar; Nelson, Keith L., “The ‘Warfare State’: History of a Concept,” Pacific Historical Review, XL (May, 1971), 127–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moskos, Charles C. Jr, “The Concept of the Military-Industrial Complex; Radical Critique or Liberal Bogey?”, Social Problems, XXI (Spring, 1974), 498–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Rosen, Steven, Testing the Theory of the Military-Industrial Complex (Lexington, Mass., 1973)Google Scholar and Sarkesian, Sam C., ed., The Military-Industrial Complex: A Reassessment (Los Angeles, 1972)Google Scholar.

⁵ Cuff, Robert D., “American Historians and the ‘Organizational Factor,’” Canadian Review of American Studies, IV (Spring, 1973), 19–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar. And see Williamson, Harold F., ed., Evolution of International Management Structures (Philadelphia, 1975)Google Scholar, passim and Hewes, James E. Jr, From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-1963 (Washington, 1975), esp. 411–412Google Scholar.

⁶ The social literature on complex organization is voluminous. Useful guides include Lang, Kurt, “Military Sociology 1963-1969, A Trend Report and Bibliography,” Current Sociology, XVI (1968), 1–66Google Scholar; March, James G., ed., Handbook of Organizations (Chicago, 1965)Google Scholar; Mayntz, Renate, “The Study of Organizations, A Trend Report and Bibliography,” Current Sociology, XIII (1964), 93–156Google Scholar; Pugh, D. S.et al., Writers on Organizations, An Introduction (London, 1971)Google Scholar; and Silverman, David, The Theory of Organizations: A Sociological Framework (London, 1970)Google Scholar.

⁷ Hays, Samuel P., “The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly, XL (October, 1964), 157–169Google Scholar.

⁸ The relevant literature here includes, Cuff, Robert D., The War Industries Board: Business Government Relations During World War I (Baltimore, 1973) passimGoogle Scholar; Catton, Bruce, The War Lords of Washington (New York, 1948), passimGoogle Scholar; Christman, Calvin L., “Donald Nelson and the Army: Personality as a Factor in Civil-Military Relations During World War II,” Military Affairs, XXXVII (October, 1973), 81–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Janeway, Eliot, The Struggle For Survival, A Chronicle of Economic Mobilization in World War II (New Haven, 1951)Google Scholar; and Domhoff, G. William and Ballard, Hoyt B., eds., C. Wright Mills and The Power Elite (Boston, 1968)Google Scholar.

⁹ See Benson, J. Kenneth, “The Analysis of Bureaucratic-Professional Conflict: Functional Versus Dialectical Approaches,” Sociological Quarterly, XIV (Summer, 1973), 376–394, esp. 387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Cuff, Robert D., “Bernard Baruch: Symbol and Myth in Industrial Mobilization,” Business History Review, XLIII (Summer, 1909), 115–133Google Scholar, and “Herbert Hoover, The Ideology of Voluntarism and War Organization During the Great War,” Journal of American History, LXIV (September 1977), 358–372Google Scholar.

¹¹ Nelson, Donald M., Arsenal of Democracy (New York, 1946), 358, 363Google Scholar. Eliot Janeway challenges Catton and Nelslon in The Struggle For Survival, passim. See also his “Where Was Mr. Nelson,” Saturday Review (September 7, 1946), 11.

¹² Robert Patterson to Floyd B. Odlum, September 26, 1946, Box 21, Robert Patterson Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

¹³ Patterson to George W. Healy, September 10, 1946, Ibid.

¹⁴ Barnet, Richard J., Roots of War (New York, 1972), esp. part 1Google Scholar. For additional references to the organizational factor in the critical literature, see Galbraith, John K., The New Industrial State (Boston, 1967), passimGoogle Scholar; Melman, Seymour, Pentagon Capitalism (New York, 1970), passimGoogle Scholar; Halperin, Morton H., “The Limited Influence of the Military-Industrial Complex,” in Ilchman, Warren F. and Bain, Joe S., eds., The Political Economy of the Military-Industrial Complex (Berkeley, 1973), 1–20Google Scholar; and Allison, Graham T., “Organizational and Administrative Factors Affecting Shifts in Defense Expenditures,” in Udis, Bernard ed., The Economic Consequences of Reduced Military Spending (Lexington, Mass., 1973), 289–336Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Dahl, Robert A. and Lindblom, Charles E., Politics, Economics and Welfare: Planning and Politico-Economic Systems Resolved into Basic Social Processes (New York, 1953), 373Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Smith, K. Elberton, The Army and Economic Mobilization (Washington, 1959), 105, 110-112.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Weidenbaum, Murray L., The Economics of Peacetime Defense (New York, 1974), 134.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Danhof, Clarence H., Government Contracting and Technological Change (Washington, 1968), 228, n. 11.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Chandler, Alfred D. Jr, Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), passim.Google Scholar For a reading of Chandler's work that makes the idea of strategic choice the critical variable in a theory of organizations, see Child, John, “Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice,” Sociology, 6 (January, 1972), 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁰ Barnet, Roots of War, 16, 33.

²¹ McCraw, Thomas K., “Regulation in American: A Review Article,” Business History Review, XLIX (Summer, 1975), 181Google Scholar.

²² Hawley, Ellis W., The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton, 1966), 36Google Scholar.

²³ Sherwin, Martin J., A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance (New York, 1975), passim.Google Scholar

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²⁵ Luther Gulick made a pioneering attempt at charting and explaining the changing administrative structure of World War II in Administrative Reflections from World War II (Birmingham, Ala., 1948)Google Scholar, but it was not followed up.

²⁸ Robert Cuff, The War Industries Board, 135-147; Beaver, Daniel R., Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919 (Lincoln, Neb., 1966), 94–109, 116-129Google Scholar; Kerr, Austin K., “Decision for Federal Control: Wilson, McAdoo, and the Railroads, 1917,” Journal of American History, LIV (January, 1967), 550–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²⁹ Dahl and Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare, 126.

³⁰ Stinchcombe, A. L., “Social Structure and Organization,” reprinted in part in Bums, Tom, ed., Industrial Man (Baltimore, 1969), 157Google Scholar.

³¹ Leuchtenburg, William E., “The New Deal and the Analogue of War,” in Braeman, John, Bremner, Robert H., and Walters, Everett, eds., Change and Continuity in Twentieth Century America (Columbus, Ohio, 1964), 81–143.Google Scholar

³² For a very useful introduction to this theme, see McConnell, Grant, Private Power and American Democracy (New York, 1960), ch. 8Google Scholar.

³³ Haber, Samuel, Efficiency and Uplift (Chicago, 1964), ch. 7Google Scholar; Novick, David, Anshen, Melvin, and Truppner, W. C., Wartime Production Controls (New York, 1949)Google Scholar; Hitch, Charles J. and McKean, Roland N., The Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1960)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dickson, Paul, Think Tanks (New York, 1971)Google Scholar. Peck and Scherer write, concerning the instability of weapons technology: “In the postwar period, such a series of successive new weapons generations has appeared as to defy description. We can now pass through a weapon generation faster than we can complete a development cycle.” Peck, Merton J. and Scherer, Frederic M., The Weapons Acquisition Process: An Economic Analysis (Boston, 1962), 47.Google Scholar

³⁴ My comment on the comparative development of production and allocation controls is based on a reading of David Novick, et al., Wartime Production Controls, chs. 2-6. There is no equivalent study for the World War I period. In addition to the information that Wartime Production Controls provides on specific control procedures, the book also documents the intensified search for administrative “rationality” in the war and postwar years. Dahl and Lindblom's Politics, Economics and Welfare exemplifies this search as well. Both books provide a remarkable contrast in tone as well as substance to Tobin, Harold J. and Bidwell, Percy W., Mobilizing Civilian America (New York, 1940)Google Scholar, a book that codifies the Great War and interwar experience in economic planning for war.

³⁵ These themes are developed in part in Robert Cuff, The War Industries Board, passim; and in “We Band of Brothers — Woodrow Wilson's War Managers,” Canadian Review of American Studies, V (Fall, 1974), 135–148Google Scholar.

³⁶ Hawley, Ellis, “Techno-Corporatist Formulas in the Liberal State 1920-1960: A Neglected Aspect of America's Search for a New Order,” unpublished msGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Hawley, Ellis, “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat and the Vision of an ‘Associative State’ 1921-1928,” Journal of American History, LXI (June, 1974), 116–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁸ Dupree, A. Hunter, Science in the Federal Government, A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (New York, 1957), chs. 15-17Google Scholar; Clifford, John G., “Grenville Clark and the Origins of Selective Service,” Review of Politics, XXXV (January, 1973), 17–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A valuable article for establishing the politico-administrative context of these years is Karl, Barry D., “Presidential Planning and Social Science Research: Mr. Hoover's Experts,” in Fleming, Donald and Bailyn, Bernard, eds.. Perspectives in American History (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), II, 347–409Google Scholar.

³⁹ Blum, Albert A., “Birth and Death of the M Day Plan,” in Stein, Harold ed., American Civil-Military Decisions: A Book of Case Studies (Birmingham, Ala., 1963), 63–94Google Scholar; Koistinen, Paul A. C., “The ‘Industrial-Military Complex’ in Historical Perspective: The Inter-war Years,” Journal of American History, LVI (March, 1970), 819–839CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ A controversial point to be sure. See Melman, Seymour, ed., The War Economy of the United States, Readings in Military Industry and Economy (New York, 1971)Google Scholar; Baldwin, William L., The Structure of the Defense Market 1955-1964 (Durham, N.C., 1967)Google Scholar; and Weidenbaum, Murray L., The Modern Public Sector: New Ways of Doing the Government's Business (New York, 1969) for relevant readings.Google Scholar