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⁸² A similar story can be told for the top ten countries ranked by mean random sender country effects: Lebanon (1.40), Guyana (1.20), Cape Verde (1.05), Morocco (1.05), Russia (1.04), Mexico (0.96), Congo (0.92), New Zealand (0.87), Eritrea (0.85) and Kazakhstan (0.78). After controlling for the effects of dyadic and sender and receiver specific covariates, there are still factors that we do not know that make these countries stand out as the main senders of migration.

⁸³ Note that we choose not to display the axes in the figure, because there is no substantive meaning for the x-axis and y-axis in a figure after multidimensional scaling – the axes only represent relative positions for countries in the policy space and one can simply rotate the figure (therefore having different values for the axes) and keep the same configuration for the countries in the space.

⁸⁴ Parsons et al., Quantifying the International Bilateral Movements of Migrants.

⁸⁵ These fourteen countries include Bahrain, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt. Notice that not all these countries are oil-rich countries. Some of them, for example, those in North Africa, are important sending countries of immigrants to the oil-rich countries in the region.

⁸⁶ We would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for this idea.

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