Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T16:48:14.588Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Refining the sexual selection explanation within an ethological framework

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 August 2009

John Archer
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, United Kingdom. jarcher@uclan.ac.ukhttp://www.uclan.ac.uk/scitech/research/rae2008/psychology/staff_profiles/jarcher.php

Abstract

My response is organized into three sections. The first revisits the theme of the target article, the explanatory power of sexual selection versus social role theory. The second considers the range and scope of sexual selection, and its application to human sex differences. Two topics are examined in more detail: (1) the paternity uncertainty theory of partner violence; (2) evolution of inter-group aggression. Section 4 covers ultimate and proximal explanations and their integration within an ethological approach. I consider the development of sex differences in aggression, and their causal mechanisms, within this framework.

Type
Author's Response
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, R. D., Hoogland, J. L., Howard, R. D., Noonan, K. M. & Sherman, P. W. (1979) Sexual dimorphisms and breeding systems in pinnipeds, ungulates, primates, and humans. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 402–35. Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Andrew, R. J. (1963) The origin and evolution of calls and facial expressions of the primates. Behaviour 20:1109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (1970) Effects of population density on behaviour in rodents. In: Social behaviour in birds and mammals, ed. Crook, J. H., pp. 169210. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1976) The organisation of aggression and fear in vertebrates. In: Perspectives in ethology 2, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P., pp. 231–98. Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (1988) The behavioural biology of aggression. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1989–90) Pain-induced aggression: An ethological perspective. Current Psychology: Research and Reviews 8:298306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (1992a) Childhood gender roles: Social context and organisation. In: Childhood social development: Contemporary perspectives, ed. McGurk, H., pp. 3161. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1992b) Ethology and human development. Barnes & Noble.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1999) Assessment of the reliability of the Conflict Tactics Scales: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:1263–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2000a) Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 126:651–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2002) Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal 7:313–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2006a) Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:113–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2006b) Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30:319–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. & Coyne, S. M. (2005) An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review 8:212–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J., Fernández-Fuertes, A. & Thanzami, V. L. (submitted) Assessing whether a cost-benefit analysis or self-control predicts involvement in two forms of aggression.Google Scholar
Archer, J. & Southall, N. (2009) Does cost-benefit analysis or self-control predict involvement in bullying behavior by male prisoners? Aggressive Behavior 35:3140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. & Thanzami, V. L. (in press) The relation between mate value, entitlement, physical aggression, size, and strength, among a sample of young Indian men. Evolution and Human Behavior. DOI: 10.1016/jevolhumbehav.2009.03.003.Google Scholar
Archer, J. & Webb, I. A. (2006) The relation between scores on the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire and aggressive acts, impulsiveness, competitiveness, dominance, and sexual jealousy. Aggressive Behavior 32:464–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, R. R. & Bellis, M. A. (1993) Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation. Animal Behaviour 46:861–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L. & Boden, J. M. (1996) Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review 103:533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benenson, J. F., Carder, H. P. & Geib-Cole, S. J. (2008) The development of boys' preferential pleasure in physical aggression. Aggressive Behavior 34:154–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkowitz, L. (1962) Aggression: A social psychological analysis. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, L. (2008) On the consideration of automatic as well as controlled psychological processes in aggression. Aggressive Behavior 34:117–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björkqvist, K. (1994) Sex differences in physical, verbal and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles 30:177–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bookwala, J., Frieze, I. H., Smith, C. & Ryan, K. (1992) Predictors of dating violence: A multivariate analysis. Violence and Victims 7:297311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, K., Atkins, M. S., Osborne, M. L. & Milnamow, M. (1996) A revised teacher rating scale for reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 24:473–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, A. H. & Perry, M. (1992) The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63:452–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. (1988a) From vigilance to violence: Tactics of mate retention in American undergraduates. Ethology and Sociobiology 9:291317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2004) Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind, 2nd edition. Pearson.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. & Duntley, J. D. (2006) The evolution of aggression. In: Evolution and social psychology, ed. Schaller, M., Kenrick, D. T. & Simpson, J. A., pp. 263–86. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. & Shackelford, T. K. (1997a) From vigilance to violence: Mate retention tactics in married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72:346–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. & Shackelford, T. K. (1997b) Human aggression in evolutionary psychological perspective. Clinical Psychology Review 17:605–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K. & McKibbin, W. F. (2008) The Mate Retention Inventory-Short Form (MRI-SF). Personality and Individual Differences 44:322–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldwell, M. A. & Peplau, L. A. (1982) Sex differences in same-sex friendships. Sex Roles 8:721–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (1999) Staying alive: Evolution, culture and women's intra-sexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22:203–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carranza, J. (2009) Defining sexual selection as sex-dependent selection. Animal Behaviour 77:749–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, P. & Perreira, K. M. (2007) Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and 1-year post-partum. Journal of Family Violence 22:609–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2004) What is sexual selection? In: Sexual selection in primates: New and comparative perspectives, ed. Kappeler, P. M. & van Schaik, C. P., pp. 2236. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2009) Sexual selection in females. Animal Behaviour 77:311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Parker, G. A. (1995) Sexual coercion in animal societies. Animal Behaviour 49:1345–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Vincent, A. C. J. (1991) Sexual selection and the potential reproductive rates of males and females. Nature 351:5860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, D., Nisbett, R. E., Bowdle, B. F. & Schwarz, N. (1996) Insult, aggression, and the Southern culture of honor: An “experimental ethnology.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:945–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Côté, S., Vaillancourt, T., LeBlanc, J. C., Nagin, D. S. & Tremblay, R. E. (2006) The development of physical aggression from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence: A nation wide longitudinal study of Canadian children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 34(1):7185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crabb, P. B. (2000) The material culture of homicidal fantasies. Aggressive Behavior 26:225–34.3.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988) Homicide. Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1990) Killing the competition: Female/female and male/male homicide. Human Nature 1:81107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darwin, C. (1859/1911) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. Murray.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871/1901) The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. Murray. Available online at: http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_08.html.Google Scholar
de Weerth, C. & Kalma, A. P. (1993) Female aggression as a response to sexual jealousy: A sex role reversal? Aggressive Behavior 19:265–79.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dindia, K. & Allen, M. (1992) Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 112:106–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobash, R. P., Dobash, R. E., Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1992) The myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence. Social Problems 39:7191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A. & Coie, J. D. (1987) Social-information processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53:1146–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H. & Sears, R. R. (1939) Frustration and aggression. Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutton, D. G. (2005) On comparing apples with apples deemed nonexistent: A reply to Johnson. Journal of Child Custody 2:5363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutton, D. G. & Nicholls, T. L. (2005) The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: Part 1 – the conflict of theory and data. Aggression and Violent Behavior 10:680714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1987) Sex differences in social behavior: A social role interpretation. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W. & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004) Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implications for the partner preferences of women and men. In: The psychology of gender, 2nd edition, ed. Eagly, A. H., Beall, A. & Sternberg, R. S., pp. 269–95. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Felson, R. B. (1997) Anger, aggression, and violence in love triangles. Violence and Victims 12:345–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felson, R. B. (2002) Violence and gender reexamined. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felson, R. B. & Outlaw, M. C. (2007) The control motive and marital violence. Violence and Victims 22:387407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fincher, C. L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D. R. & Schaller, M. (2008) Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 275:1279–85.Google ScholarPubMed
Finkel, E. J. (2007) Impelling and inhibiting forces in the penetration of intimate partner violence. Review of General Psychology 11:193207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1988) Mate guarding in a Caribbean village. Ethology and Sociobiology 9:128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, B. X., Bleske, A. L. & Scheyd, G. J. (2000) Incompatible with evolutionary theorizing. American Psychologist 55:1059–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gangestad, S. W., Haselton, M. G. & Buss, D. M. (2006a) Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry 17:7595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gendreau, P. L. & Archer, J. (2005) Subtypes of aggression in humans and animals. In: Developmental origins of aggression, ed. Tremblay, R., Hartup, W. W. & Archer, J., pp. 2546. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J. S. (2001) War and gender. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Graham-Kevan, N. & Archer, J. (in press) Control tactics and partner violence in heterosexual relationships. Evolution and Human BehaviorGoogle Scholar
Graham-Kevan, N. & Archer, J. (submitted) Using Johnson's domestic violence typology to classify men and women: Victim and perpetrator reports.Google Scholar
Green, L. R., Richardson, D. R. & Lago, T. (1996) How do friendship, indirect, and direct aggression relate? Aggressive Behavior 22:8186.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haden, S. C. & Hojjat, M. (2006) Aggressive responses to betrayal: Type of relationship, victim's sex, and nature of aggression. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 23:101–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. P. (1995) Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: Two forms of violence against women. Journal of Marriage and the Family 57:283–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. P. (2001) Conflict and control: Images of symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. In: Couples in conflict, ed. Booth, A., Crouter, A. C. & Clements, M., pp. 95104. Erlbaum.Google ScholarPubMed
Johnson, M. P. & Leone, J. M. (2005) The differential effects of intimate terrorism and common/situational couple violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Journal of Family Issues 26:322–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Oatley, K. (1992) Basic emotions, rationality, and folk theory. Cognition and Emotion 6:201–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemper, T. (1990) Social structure and testosterone: Elaborations of the socio-bio-social chain. Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Sheets, V. (1993) Homicidal fantasies. Ethology and Sociobiology 14:231–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kou, R., Chou, S-Y., Huang, Z. Y. & Yang, R-L. (2008) Juvenile hormone levels are increased in winners of cockroach fights. Hormones and Behavior 54:521–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K. & Peltonen, T. (1988) Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in 11- to 12- year-old children. Aggressive Behavior 4:403–14.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laroche, D. (2005) Aspects of the context and consequences of domestic violence – Situational couple violence and intimate terrorism in Canada in 1999. Government of Quebec.Google Scholar
Laub, J. H., Nagin, D. S. & Sampson, R. J. (1998) Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process. American Sociological Review 63:225–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, D. (2006) Causal explanations of human behavior: From culture to psychology or from psychology to culture? Psychological Inquiry 17:7595.Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1971) Studies in animal and human behavior, vol. II, trans Martin, R.. Methuen.Google Scholar
Low, B. S. (1989) Cross-cultural patterns in the training of children: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Comparative Psychology 103:311–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Low, B. S. (1990) Marriage systems and pathogen stress in humans. American Zoologist 30:325–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1988) Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology 24:755–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. (1990) Personality in adulthood. Guilford.Google Scholar
Mirrlees-Black, C., Budd, T., Partridge, S. & Mayhew, P. (1998) The 1998 British Crime Survey. Government Statistical Service (Home Office, London).Google Scholar
Moffit, T. E., Caspi, A., Krueger, R. F., Magdol, L., Margolin, G., Silva, P. A. & Sydney, R. (1997) Do partners agree about abuse in their relationahip? A psychometric evaluation of interpartner aggression. Psychological Assessment 9:4756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, P. E. & Martin, J. (1994) Jealousy: A community study. British Journal of Psychiatry 164:3543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nannini, D. K. & Meyers, L. S. (2000) Jealousy in sexual and emotional infidelity: An alternative to the evolutionary explanation. Journal of Sex Research 37:117–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Cohen, D. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1974b) Courtship persistence and female-guarding as male time investment strategies. Behaviour 48:157–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Stouthamer-Loeber, M. & Liu, J. (2006) The Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior 32:159–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, L. (1985) Just friends: The role of friendship in our lives. Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Ruff, J. R. (2001) Violence in early modern Europe 1500–1800. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, A. & Hine, D. W. (2005) Sex differences in workplace aggression: An investigation of moderation and mediation effects. Aggressive Behavior 31:254–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarpa, A. & Haden, S. C. (2006) Psychophysiological, behavioral, and emotional distinctions between childhood reactive and proactive aggression. Paper presented at the XVIII World Meeting of the International Society for Research on Aggression, Minneapolis, MN, June 2006.Google Scholar
Schaller, M. & Murray, D. R. (2008) Pathogens, personality and culture: Disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95:212–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., Buss, D. M., Euler, H. A. & Hoier, S. (2005a) When we hurt the ones we love: Predicting violence against women from men's mate retention. Personal Relationships 12:447–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarðhamar, T. & Lyngstad, T. H. (2009) Family formation, fatherhood and crime: An invitation to a broader perspective on crime and family transitions. (Discussion Papers No. 579). Statistics Norway Research Department.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1990) The Conflict Tactics Scales and its critics: An evaluation and new data on validity and reliability. In: Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families, ed. Straus, M. A. & Gelles, R. J., pp. 4973. Transaction Publications.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1999) The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In: Violence in intimate relationships, ed. Arriaga, X.B. & Oskamp, S., pp. 1744. Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A. (2004) Cross-cultural reliability and validity of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales: A study of university student dating couples in 17 nations. Cross Cultural Research 38:407–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suomi, S. J. (2005) Genetic and environmental factors influencing the expression of impulsive aggression and serotinergic functioning in rhesus monkeys. In: Developmental origins of aggression, ed. Tremblay, R., Hartup, W. & Archer, J., pp. 6382. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tedeschi, J. T. & Felson, R. B. (1994) Violence, aggression, and coercive actions. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornhill, R., Fincher, C. L. & Aran, D. (2009) Parasites, democratization, and the liberalization of values across contemporary countries. Biological Reviews 84:113–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On the aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Japel, C., Pérusse, D., McDuff, P., Boivin, M., Zoccolillo, M. & Montplaisir, J. (1999) The search for the age of “onset” of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisted. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health 9(1):823.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B. B., pp. 136–79. Aldine.Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T. & Sharma, A. (2008) Undergraduate females' use of indirect aggression: Under the right circumstances everyone aggresses. Paper presented at the XVIII World Meeting of the International Society for Research on Aggression, Budapest, Hungary, July 2008.Google Scholar
van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1972) A comparative approach to the phylogyny of laughter and smiling. In: Non-verbal communication, ed. Hinde, R. A., pp. 209–41. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
van Vugt, M., De Cremer, D. & Janssen, D. (2007) Gender differences in cooperation and competition: The male warrior hypothesis. Psychological Science 18:1923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vitaro, F. & Brendgen, M. (2005) Proactive and reactive aggression. In: Developmental origins of aggression, ed. Tremblay, R., Hartup, W. W. & Archer, J., pp. 178201. Guilford.Google Scholar
Walby, S. & Allen, J. (2004) Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Findings from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Research, Development and Statistical Directorate, London.Google Scholar
Webb, I. A. (2007) The role of evolutionary and social factors in the same-sex and partner aggression. Unpublished Master's dissertation, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
White, G. L. (1981) Some correlates of romantic jealousy. Journal of Personality 49:129–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, R. & Pickett, K. (2009) The spirit level: Why more equal societies almost always do better. Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1992) The man who mistook his wife for a chattel. In: The adapted mind, ed. Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J., pp. 289321. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1996) Male sexual proprietariness and violence against wives. Current Directions in Psychological Science 5:27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, M. L. & Wrangham, R. W. (2003) Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. Annual Review of Anthropology 32:263–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wingfield, J. C., Hegner, R. E., Dufty, A. M. Jr. & Ball, G. F. (1990) The “challenge hypothesis”: Theoretical implications for patterns of testosterone secretion, mating systems, and breeding strategies. American Naturalist 136:829–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, W. & Eagly, A. H. (2002) A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin 128:699727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wrangham, R. W. (1999) Evolution of coalitionary killing. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 42:130.3.0.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. & Wilson, M. L. (2004) Collective violence: Comparisons between youths and chimpanzees. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1036:233–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, P. H. (1988) Interpreting research on gender differences in friendship: A case for moderation and a plea for caution. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 5:367–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar