Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T15:32:15.711Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Beyond WEIRD: Towards a broad-based behavioral science

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 June 2010

Joseph Henrich ,
Steven J. Heine  and
Ara Norenzayan
Joseph Henrich
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 Canada. joseph.henrich@gmail.comhttp://www.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/home.htmlheine@psych.ubc.caara@psych.ubc.ca Department of Economics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada.
Steven J. Heine
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 Canada. joseph.henrich@gmail.comhttp://www.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/home.htmlheine@psych.ubc.caara@psych.ubc.ca
Ara Norenzayan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4 Canada. joseph.henrich@gmail.comhttp://www.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/home.htmlheine@psych.ubc.caara@psych.ubc.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In our response to the 28 (largely positive) commentaries from an esteemed collection of researchers, we (1) consolidate additional evidence, extensions, and amplifications offered by our commentators; (2) emphasize the value of integrating experimental and ethnographic methods, and show how researchers using behavioral games have done precisely this; (3) present our concerns with arguments from several commentators that separate variable “content” from “computations” or “basic processes”; (4) address concerns that the patterns we highlight marking WEIRD people as psychological outliers arise from aspects of the researchers and the research process; (5) respond to the claim that as members of the same species, humans must have the same invariant psychological processes; (6) address criticisms of our telescoping contrasts; and (7) return to the question of explaining why WEIRD people are psychologically unusual. We believe a broad-based behavioral science of human nature needs to integrate a variety of methods and apply them to diverse populations, well beyond the WEIRD samples it has largely relied upon.

Type
Authors' Response
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 33 , Issue 2-3 , June 2010 , pp. 111 - 135
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alvard, M. (2004) The Ultimatum Game, fairness, and cooperation among big game hunters. In: Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & Gintis, H., pp. 413–35. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnett, J. (2008) The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist 63(7):602–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atran, S. & Medin, D. L. (2008) The native mind and the cultural construction of nature. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atran, S., Medin, D. L. & Ross, N. (2005) The cultural mind: Environmental decision making and cultural modeling within and across populations. Psychological Review 112(4):744–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atran, S., Medin, D. L., Ross, N., Lynch, E., Coley, J. D., Ek, E. U. & Vapnarsky, V. (1999) Folkecology and commons management in the Maya Lowlands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 96(13):7598–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bang, M., Medin, D. L. & Atran, S. (2007) Cultural mosaics and mental models of nature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104:13868–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baran, N., Sapienza, P. & Zingales, L. (2009) Can we infer social preferences from the lab? Evidence from the Trust Game. Unpublished manuscript, University of Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, H. C. & Behne, T. (2005) Children's understanding of death as the cessation of agency: A test using sleep versus death. Cognition 96(2):93–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolyanatz, A. H. (under review) Sursurunga Dictator and Ultimatum Game results. Submission for: Experimenting with social norms: Fairness and punishment in cross-cultural perspective, ed. Henrich, J. & Ensminger, J..Google Scholar
Borgerhoff Mulder, S., Bowles, M., Hertz, T., Bell, A., Beise, J., Clark, G., Fazzio, I., Gurven, M., Hill, K., Hooper, P. L., Irons, W., Kaplan, H., Leonetti, D., Low, B., Marlowe, F., McElreath, R., Naidu, S., Nolin, D., Piraino, P., Quinlan, R., Schniter, E., Sear, R., Shenk, M., Smith, E. A., von Rueden, C., & Wiessner, P. (2009) Intergenerational wealth transmission and the dynamics of inequality in small-scale societies. Science 326(5953):682–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B. & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000) Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79(4):631–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bramble, D. M. & Lieberman, D. E. (2004) Endurance running and the evolution of Homo . Nature 432(7015):345–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J. D. & Kobayashi, C. (2002) Self-enhancement in Japan and America. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 5:145–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchtel, E. & Norenzayan, A. (2008) Which should you use, intuition or logic? Cultural differences in injunctive norms about reasoning. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 11:264–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnham, T. C. & Johnson, D. D. (2005) The biological and evolutionary logic of human cooperation. Analyse and Kritik 27:113–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. R. & Windschitl, P. D. (2004) Biases in social comparative judgments: The role of nonmotivated factors in above-average and comparative-optimism effects. Psychological Bulletin 130:813–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, I. & Nisbett, R. E. (1998) Situational salience and cultural differences in correspondence bias and the actor-observer bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24:949–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, E. (2007) The mind possessed: The cognition of spirit possession in an Afro-Brazilian religious tradition. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, C. R., Block, J. & Funder, D. C. (1995) Overly positive self-evaluations and personality: Negative implications for mental health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68:1152–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawkins, R. (2006) The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Dehaene, S. (1997) The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Edgerton, R. B. (1971) The individual in cultural adaptation: A study of four East African peoples. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ensminger, J. (2004) Market integration and fairness: Evidence from Ultimatum, Dictator and Public Goods experiments in East Africa. In: Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & Gintis, H., pp. 356–81. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everett, D. L. (2005) Cultural constraints on grammar and cognition in Piraha: Another look at the design features of human language. Current Anthropology 46(4):621–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, C. F., Heine, S. J., Yuki, M. & Takemura, K. (2009) Why do Westerners self-enhance more than East Asians? European Journal of Personality 23(3):183–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Gächter, S. (2002) Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature 415:137–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fessler, D. M. T. (2002) Reproductive immunosuppression and diet - An evolutionary perspective on pregnancy sickness and meat consumption. Current Anthropology 43(1):19–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fessler, D. M. T. (2004) Shame in two cultures: Implications for evolutionary approaches. Journal of Cognition and Culture 4(2):207–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, A. P. (1991) Structures of social life. Free Press.Google Scholar
Flaxman, S. M. & Sherman, P. W. (2000) Morning sickness: A mechanism for protecting mother and embryo. Quarterly Review of Biology 75(2):113–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flynn, J. R. (2007) What is intelligence? Beyond the Flynn effect. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, J. H. & Kam, C. D. (2007) Beyond the self: Social identity, altruism, and political participation. Journal of Politics 69(3):813–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, J. R. (1973) Encounter with anthropology. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Fraga, M. F., Ballestar, E., Paz, M. F., Ropero, S., Setien, F., Ballestar, M. L., Heine-Sũner, D., Cigudosa, J. C., Urioste, M., Benitez, J., Boix-Chornet, M., Sanchez-Aguilera, A., Ling, C., Carlsson, E., Poulsen, P., Vaag, A., Stephan, Z., Spector, T. D., Wu, Y.-Z., Plass, C. & Esteller, M. (2005) Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102(30):10604–09.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Orans, M. & Cote, J. E. (2000) Forum on theory in anthropology: Sex and hoax in Samoa. Current Anthropology 41(4):609–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilby, I. C. (2006) Meat sharing among the Gombe chimpanzees: Harassment and reciprocal exchange. Animal Behaviour 71:953–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilovich, T., Griffin, D. & Kahneman, D., eds. (2002) Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gislen, A., Dacke, M., Kroger, R. H. H., Abrahamsson, M., Nilsson, D.-E. & Warrant, E. J. (2003) Superior underwater vision in a human population of sea gypsies. Current Biology 13(10):833–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, P. (2004) Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia. Science 306(5695):496–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G. & Farnham, S. D. (2000) Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79:1022–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurven, M. & Winking, J. (2008) Collective action in action: Prosocial behavior in and out of the laboratory. American Anthropologist 110(2):179–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamamura, T., Heine, S. J. & Takemoto, T. (2007) Why the better-than-average effect is a worse-than-average measure of self-enhancement. An investigation of conflicting findings from studies of East Asian self-evaluations. Motivation and Emotion 31:247–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haun, D. B. M., Rapold, C. J., Call, J., Janzen, G. & Levinson, S. C. (2006) Cognitive cladistics and cultural override in hominid spatial cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103(46):17568–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, M. D. & Spelke, E. S. (2004) Evolutionary and developmental foundations of human knowledge: A case study of mathematics. In: The cognitive neurosciences, ed. Gazzaniga, M., pp. 853–64. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Heine, S. J. (2005) Where is the evidence for pancultural self-enhancement? A reply to Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89:531–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heine, S. J. & Hamamura, T. (2007) In search of East Asian self-enhancement. Personality and Social Psychology Review 11:1–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S. & Hamamura, T. (2007a) The inclusion of additional studies yields different conclusions: A reply to Sedikides, Gaertner & Vevea, 2005, JPSP. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 10:49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S. & Hamamura, T. (2007b) Which studies test the question of pancultural self-enhancement? A reply to Sedikides, Gaertner & Vevea, 2007. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 10:198–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C. & Matsumoto, H. (2001) Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81:599–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heine, S. J. & Lehman, D. R. (1999) Culture, self-discrepancies, and self-satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25:915–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heine, S. J., Takata, T. & Lehman, D. R. (2000) Beyond self-presentation: Evidence for self-criticism among Japanese. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:71–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. (2008) A cultural species. In: Explaining culture scientifically, ed. Brown, M., pp. 184–210. University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C. F., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., McElreath, R., Alvard, M., Barr, A., Ensminger, J., Henrich, N. S., Hill, K., Gil-White, F., Gurven, M., Marlowe, F. W., Patton, J. Q. & Tracer, D. (2005a) “Economic man” in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28 (6):795–815; discussion 815–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C. F., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., McElreath, R., Alvard, M., Barr, A., Ensminger, J., Henrich, N. S., Hill, K., Gil-White, F., Gurven, M., Marlowe, F. W., Patton, J. Q. & Tracer, D. (2005b) Models of decision-making and the coevolution of social preferences. [Authors' Response]. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28(6):838–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Gintis, H., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & McElreath, R. (2001) In search of Homo economicus: Experiments in 15 small-scale societies. American Economic Review 91:73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Gintis, H., Fehr, E. & Camerer, C., eds. (2004) Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & Ensminger, J., eds. (n. d.) Experimenting with social norms: Fairness and punishment in cross-cultural perspective. Unpublished manuscript, University of Bristish Columbia.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Ensminger, J., McElreath, R., Barr, A., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Cardenas, J. C., Gurven, M., Gwako, E., Henrich, N., Lesorogol, C., Marlowe, F., Tracer, D. P. & Ziker, J. (2010) Market, religion, community size and the evolution of fairness and punishment. Science 327(5972):1480–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J. & Gil-White, F. (2001) The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior 22(3):165–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., McElreath, R., Ensminger, J., Barr, A., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Cardenas, J. C., Gurven, M., Gwako, E., Henrich, N., Lesorogol, C., Marlowe, F., Tracer, D. & Ziker, J. (2006) Costly punishment across human societies. Science 312(5868):1767–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J. & Smith, N. (2004) Comparative experimental evidence from Machiguenga, Mapuche, and American populations. In: Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Gintis, H., Fehr, E. & Camerer, C., pp. 123–67. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, N. & Henrich, J. (2007) Why humans cooperate: A cultural and evolutionary explanation. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrmann, B., Thoni, C. & Gächter, S. (2008) Antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319(5868):1362–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, K. & Gurven, M. (2004) Economic experiments to examine fairness and cooperation among the Ache Indians of Paraguay. In: Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Gintis, H. & Fehr, E., pp. 382–412. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H. & Schmitt, M. (2005) A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31:1369–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horner, V. & Whiten, A. (2005) Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition 8(3):164–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablonka, E. & Raz, G. (2009) Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution. The Quarterly Review of Biology 84(2):131–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, K., Hare, B., Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2006) What's in it for me? Self-regard precludes altruism and spite in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B – Biological Sciences 273(1589):1013–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kam, C. D., Cranmer, S. J. & Fowler, J. H. (n.d.) When it's not all about me: Altruism, participation, and political context. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Karlan, D. S. (2005) Using experimental economics to measure social capital and predict financial decisions. American Economic Review 95(5):1688–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keel, P. K. & Klump, K. L. (2003) Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes? Implications for conceptualizing their etiology. Psychological Bulletin 129:747–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, N., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H.-U. & Kendler, K. S. (1994) Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 51:8–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klar, Y. & Giladi, E. E. (1997) No one in my group can be below the group's average: A robust positivity bias in favor of anonymous peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73:885–901.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleinman, A. (1988) Rethinking psychiatry: From cultural category to personal experience. Free Press.Google Scholar
Kraul, C. (2008) Environmental pollution and encroaching narco have taken their toll on Narino's state's Afro-Columbians. The community's unique culture, and altruism, is in peril. Los Angeles Times, April 14, 2008, p. 1.Google Scholar
Krizan, X. & Suls, J. (2008) Losing sight of oneself in the above-average effect: When egocentrism, focalism, and group diffuseness collide. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44:929–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruger, J. (1999) Lake Wobegon be gone! The “below-average effect” and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77:221–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, J. & Myles, S. (2010) How culture shaped the human genome: Bringing genetics and the human sciences together. Nature Reviews Genetics 11(2):137–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancy, D. F. (2008) The anthropology of childhood: Cherubs, chattel and changelings. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Levitt, S. D. & List, J. A. (2007) What do laboratory experiments measuring social preferences reveal about the real world? Journal of Economic Perspectives 21(2):153–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, D. E., Venkadesan, M., Werbel, W. A., Daoud, A. I., D'Andrea, S., Davis, I. S., Mang'Eni, R. O. & Pitsiladis, Y. (2010) Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners. Nature 463(7280):531–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
May, R. M. (1997) The scientific wealth of nations. Science 275:793–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, M. (1932) An investigation of the thought of primitive children, with special reference to animism. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 62:173–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., Hyde, J. S. & Hankin, B. L. (2004) Is there a universal positive bias in attributions? A meta-analytic review of individual, developmental, and cultural differences in the self-serving attributional bias. Psychological Bulletin 130:711–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ngui, P. W. (1969) The koro epidemic in Singapore. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 3:263–66.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. (2003) The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently … and why. Free Press.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. & Cohen, D. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Norenzayan, A. & Heine, S. J. (2005) Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know? Psychological Bulletin 131:763–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norenzayan, A., Smith, E. E., Kim, B. J. & Nisbett, R. E. (2002b) Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning. Cognitive Science 26(5):653–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okazaki, S. (1997) Sources of ethnic differences between Asian American and White American college students on measures of depression and social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106:52–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paulhus, D. L. (1998) Interpersonal vs. intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self-enhancement: A mixed blessing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74:1197–1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pica, P., Lerner, C., Izard, V. & Dehaene, S. (2004) Exact and approximate arithmetic in an Amazonian indigenous group. Science 306:499–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds Losin, E. A., Dapretto, M. & Iacoboni, M. (2010) Culture and neuroscience: Additive or synergestic. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsp058.Google Scholar
Richerson, P. J. & Boyd, R. (2005) Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human evolution. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rivers, W. H. R. (1901b) Introduction and vision. In: Reports of the Cambridge anthropological expedition to the Torres Straits, ed. Haddon, A. C.. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Robins, R. W. & Beer, J. S. (2001) Positive illusions about the self: Short-term benefits and long-term costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80:340–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, M., Heine, S. J., Wilson, A. E. & Sugimori, S. (2005) Cross-cultural discrepancies in self-appraisals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31:1175–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rozin, P. & Nemeroff, C. J. (1990) The laws of sympathetic magic: A psychological analysis of similarity and contagion. In: Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development, ed. Stigler, J., Herdt, G. & Shweder, R. A., pp. 205–32. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakai, M., Ishikawa, S., Takizawa, M., Sato, H. & Sakano, Y. (2004) The state of Hikikomori from a family's point of view: Statistical survey and the role of psychological intervention. Japanese Journal of Counseling Science 37:168–79.Google Scholar
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L. & Toguchi, Y. (2003) Pancultural self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:60–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L. & Vevea, J. L. (2005) Pancultural self-enhancement reloaded: A meta-analytic reply to Heine (2005). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89:539–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L. & Vevea, J. L. (2007a) Evaluating the evidence for pancultural self-enhancement. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 10:201–03.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L. & Vevea, J. L. (2007b) Inclusion of theory-relevant moderators yield the same conclusions as Sedikides, Gaertner, and Vevea (2005) A meta-analytical reply to Heine, Kitayama, and Hamamura (2007). Asian Journal of Social Psychology 10:59–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segall, M. H., Campbell, D. T. & Herskovits, M. J. (1966) The influence of culture on visual perception. Bobbs-Merrill.Google Scholar
Silk, J. B., Brosnan, S. F., Vonk, J., Henrich, J., Povinelli, D. J., Richardson, A. S., Lambeth, S. P., Mascaro, J. & Shapiro, S. J. (2005) Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members. Nature 437:1357–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sillitoe, P. (1998) An introduction to the anthropology of Melanesia: Culture and tradition. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Slingerland, E. G. (2008) What science offers the humanities: Integrating body and culture. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, J. C. & Oishi, S. (2010) Culture and self-enhancement. A social relation analysis. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M. & McDowell, N. K. (2003) Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well-adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:165–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tennie, C., Gilby, I. & Mundry, R. (2009) The meat-scrap hypothesis: Small quantities of meat may promote cooperative hunting in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 63(3):421–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tracer, D. P. (2003) Selfishness and fairness in economic and evolutionary perspective: An experimental economic study in Papua New Guinea. Current Anthropology 44(3):432–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tracer, D. P. (2004) Market integration, reciprocity, and fairness in rural Papua New Guinea: Results from two-village Ultimatum Game experiments. In: Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & Gintis, H., pp. 232–60. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tracer, D. P., Mueller, I. & Morse, J. (under review) Cruel to be kind: Effects of sanctions and third-party enforcers on generosity in Papua New Guinea. In: Experimenting with social norms: Fairness and punishment in cross-cultural perspective, ed. Henrich, J. & Ensminger, J..Google Scholar
Tseng, W.-S. (2001) Handbook of cultural psychiatry. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tuttle, R., Webb, D. & Baksh, M. (1991) Laetoli toes and Australopithecus afarensis. Human Evolution 6(3):193–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuttle, R., Webb, D., Weidl, E. & Baksh, M. (1990) Further progress on the Laetoli trails. Journal of Archaeological Science 17(3):347–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, R., Gurven, M., Hill, K., Migliano, A., Chagnon, N., De Souza, R., Djurovic, G., Hames, R., Hurtado, A. M., Kaplan, H., Kramer, K., Oliver, W. J., Valeggia, C. & Yamauchi, T. (2006) Growth rates and life histories in twenty-two small-scale societies. American Journal of Human Biology 18(3):295–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watters, E. (2010) Crazy like us: The globalization of the American psyche. Free Press.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Bland, R. C., Canino, G. J., Faravelli, C., Greenwald, S. & Hwu, H.-G. (1996) Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association 276:293–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W. & Boesch, C. (1999) Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399(6737):682–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WHO (World Health Organization). (1973) The International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Windschitl, P. D., Conybeare, D. & Krizan, Z. (2008) Direct-comparison judgments: When and why above- and below-average effects reverse. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137:182–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed