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The Bilateral Relationship between Austria-Hungary and the United States from April to December 19171
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 April 2015
Extract
The significance of the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918 is unquestionable in the context of Central European history. Small countries were formed, replacing a multinational empire. These new countries, however, had to deal with the aftermath of the downfall of the monarchy in the political, economic, and social spheres for a long time thereafter. Because so much is known about the collapse of the Danubian Monarchy today, one may wonder what else could possibly be said about the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Countless authors at home and abroad, some of them distinguished and others unreliable, as well as eyewitnesses and professional historians, have all devoted time and energy to this subject throughout the nearly one hundred years that have passed since the old monarchy fell apart.
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Footnotes
1
This article was written with the support of Charles University in Prague, PRVOUK No. 12/205 605 Research Support Scheme.
References
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25 The German Chancellor von Bethmann Hollweg really did promise that he would stop the attacks. Hohenlohe to Burián, 31 Dec. 1915. HHStA, PA, AR, Kt. F 36/365.
26 In one article, The New York Times claimed that if Austria-Hungary was not Germany's vassal, it would apologize for the sinking of the Ancona. “Austria's Opportunity,” The New York Times, 19 Dec. 1915, 16.
27 Hohenlohe to Burián, 24 Apr. 1916, No. 133. HHStA, PA, Kt. 844 Liasse Krieg 4c Deutschland 1916–1918, 5a Italien 1915 (hereafter referred to as 844 P. A. I). Germany finally agreed to not sink passenger ships without giving prior warning.
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34 Bethmann Hollweg to Burián, 14 Oct. 1916, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I.
35 Burián, 30 Oct. 1916, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 955 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 25 p Friedensverhandlg. (hereinafter referred to as 955 P. A. I).
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50 Walter Hines Page (the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom) to Lansing, 22 Dec. 1916, PWW 40, 319.
51 Czernin to the Emperor, Jan. 1917, No. 1. HHStA, PA, Kt. 261 P. A. XL Interna, Korr. d. Ministers 1911–1918.
52 Sharp (the U.S. Ambassador in France) to Lansing, 29 Dec. 1916. FRUS 1916, Suppl., 123–25.
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55 An Address to the U.S. Senate, 22 Jan. 1917, PWW 40, 533.
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57 From the Diary of Colonel House, 1 Feb. 1917, PWW 41, 86–89.
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61 Two Letters from Robert Lansing, 26 Oct. 1916, PWW 38, 544–45.
62 W. H. Page to Lansing, 15 Dec. 1916, FRUS, 1916, Suppl., 806; a Sharp to Lansing, 18 Dec. 1916, ibid.
63 Phillips, Diary entry, 9 Feb. 1917, Harvard University Library (HUL), William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
64 Czernin to Hohenlohe, 12 Feb. 1916, No. 74. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
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67 Czernin to Hohenlohe, 21 Feb. 1917. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
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69 The Counselor for the Department of State Frank Lyon Polk only mentioned the National Question once in a conversation with Zwiedinek. Polk, Diary entry, 3 Mar. 1917. Yale University Library, Frank Lyon Polk Papers, Group 656, Series III, Box 22.
70 “Austria and Bohemia,” The New York Times, 21 Jan. 1917, 1. An article based on information from a representative of the Bohemian National Alliance in America pointed out that Emperor Charles did revoke the death penalties for these people, but he only changed their punishment to lifetime imprisonment. The informant was also in opposition to the federalization of Austria-Hungary and was demanding full independence of Czech lands.
71 From Norman Hapgood, 29 Feb. 1917, PWW 41, 56–57. Hapgood sent to Wilson a memorandum drafted by T. G. Masaryk supporting the collapse of the monarchy.
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74 Aide-memoire, 2 Mar. 1917. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I., Austria-Hungary supported the principles of unrestricted submarine warfare. It concurrently claimed that its navy did not operate in the Atlantic and therefore posed no threat to the United States.
75 Unterredung Czernin Penfield, 26 Feb. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092a Nachlass Czernin, Nachlass Demblin.
76 From Frederic Courtland Penfield, 13 Mar. 1917, PWW 41, 398–99.
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89 Phillips, Diary entry, 6 May 1917. Harvard University Library (HUL), William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
90 Phillips, Diary entry, 24 May 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
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92 K. k. Polizeidirektion Wien to the Foreign Ministry, 27 Mar. 1917, No. Pr. Z. 2778 Z. St.. HHStA, PA, Kt. 196 P. A. XL Interna. Korr. mit Behörden 1917.
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98 Storck to Czernin, 13 May 1917, No. 1497, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
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100 Phillips, Diary entry, 2 June 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
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102 Phillips, Diary entry, 2 June 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
103 Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, and Japan agreed to this on 30 Nov. 1915.
104 A Memorandum by John Howard Whitehouse, 14 Apr. 1917, PWW 42, 65–69.
105 Sharp to Bryan, 1 May 1915, No. 737. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 21.
106 Philips, Diary entry, 2 July 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
107 Jean Jules Jusserand to the Foreign Ministry, 24 Apr. 1917, PWW 42, 127–29.
108 From the Diary of Colonel House, 28 Apr. 1918, PWW 42, 155–58.
109 From Edward Mandell House, 13 May 1917, PWW 42, 288–89.
110 From Arthur James Balfour, with Enclosure, 18 May 1917, PWW 42, 327–42.
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114 A Flag Day Address, 14 June 1917, PWW 42, 498–504.
115 Adams, Courting the “Vassal,” 176–77.
116 A Flag Day Address, 14 June 1917, PWW 42, 498–504.
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118 Tagesbericht, 20 July 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 58 P. A. XL Interna. Tagesber. d. Min. d. Äuss. 1917 V–VIII.
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122 Fleming, The Illusion of Victory, 113.
123 Mamatey, The United States and East Central Europe, 91–93.
124 Unterberger, The United States, Revolutionary Russia and the Rise of Czechoslovakia, 58–59.
125 “The Magyar Golden Age,” The New York Times, 27 May 1917, 2.
126 Lansing to J. J. Babka, 10 April 1917. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 695, Reel 24.
127 Stovall to Lansing, 7 July 1917, No. 1174. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 695, Reel 5.
128 “No Famine in Austria,” The New York Times, 25 May 1916, 2.
129 Penfield to Lansing, 5 Aug. 1917. LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 29. Penfield made the correct estimation, even though the Ukraine was not occupied until the winter and the spring of 1918. Austro-Hungarian units seized Odessa as the Germans stood witness.
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135 Czernin, Im Weltkriege, 99.
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138 For more information, see: Engel-Janosi, Friederich, Die Friedensgespräche Graf Nicolaus Reverteras mit Comte Abel Armand, 1917/1918 [Peace Talks between Graf Nicolaus Revertera and Comte Abel Armand, 1917/1918] (Graz/Vienna and others, 1966), 377–78Google Scholar. Austria-Hungary and France were not willing to leave their respective allies. By making the offer of a separate peace, their intention was to break down the unity of the enemy block.
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144 William Graves Sharp to Robert Lansing, 23 July 1917, PWW 43, 255–56.
145 William Graves Sharp to Jules Martin Cambon, 7 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 387–88.
146 Prior to the war, Foerster was a visiting professor at the University of Vienna and was well known for his proposals for the internal reform of Cisleithania, which were to improve the relationship between the Slavic- and the German-speaking population.
147 Benedikt, Heinrich, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe 1917/1918. Die Bemühungen um einen Verständigungsfrieden nach Dokumenten, Aktenstücken und Briefen (Graz/Cologne, 1962), 118–20Google Scholar. Businessman Julius Meinl founded the Austrian Political Society in Dec. 1915. The last Austrian Minister-President Heinrich Lammasch and Imperial Council Deputy Josef Redlich were among its members. Schicksalsjahre Österreichs 1908–1919. Das politische Tagebuch Josef Redlichs, bearbeitet von Fritz Fellner [Austria's Vital years 1908–1919. The Political Journal of Josef Redlich, Revised by Fritz Fellner], vol. II (Graz-Kraz, 1954), 222.Google Scholar
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152 In spite of Lloyd George's support, the probes failed because of Italy's refusal to curtail its demands on Austria-Hungary. The cautious stance of French Prime Minister Alexandre Ribot also played a role. Kann, Robert A., Die Sixtus Affäre und die geheimen Friedensverhandlungen Österreich-Ungarns im Ersten Weltkrieg (Vienna, 1966)Google Scholar, 32.
153 A Translation of a Letter from Baron Moncheur to Baron Charles de Broqueville, 14 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 465–70. German liberal Friedrich Naumann published a book titled Mitteleuropa in 1915. The goal was to create economic cooperation between the nations in this area controlled by Germany. Compared to the chauvinists among Austrian Germans, Naumann was much more benevolent in the questions about languages.
154 Zivojnovic, Dragan R., “The Vatican, Woodrow Wilson, and the Dissolution of the Hapsburg Monarchy 1914–1918,” East European Quarterly 3, 1 (1969) 31–70 Google Scholar. Benedikt XV, born Giacomo della Chiesa, was a cardinal and archbishop in Bologna prior to his election in Sept. 1914.
155 The text of the pope's appeal is, for example, published in Page to Lansing, 15 Aug. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 161–63.
156 For more information, see: Steglich, Wolfgant, Die Friedenspolitik der Mittelmächte 1917/1918, vol. I (Wiesbaden, 1964)Google Scholar, 117, etc.
157 Steglich, ibid., 147. Michaelis became the Chancellor after Bethmann-Hollweg resigned on 14 July 1917. Von Kühlmann was nominated on 6 Aug. 1917.
158 Shanafelt, The Secret Enemy, 146–47.
159 For the German response, see: H. Wilson to Lansing, 30 Sept. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 217–222. See also: Steglich, 200–2.
160 Shanafelt, The Secret Enemy, 147.
161 For the Austro-Hungarian response, see: H. Wilson to Lansing, 30 Sept. 1917, FRUS, 1917, 217–22.
162 Czernin, Im Weltkriege, 236–42. The emperor initially considered giving into Italy's demands, but after Czernin's insistence, he deleted this part from his letter.
163 Demblin, Diary entry, 26 Sept. 1917, in Demblin, August, Minister gegen Kaiser. Aufzeichnungen eines österreichisch-ungarischen Diplomaten über Aussenminister Czernin und Kaiser Karl (Wien-Köln and others, 1997)Google Scholar, 38.
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165 From Edward Mandell House, 15 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 471–72.
166 From Robert Lansing, 20 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 523–25.
167 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 18–22.
168 Walter Hines Page to Robert Lansing and William Graves Sharp to Robert Lansing, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 23–26.
169 Reply to the Pope, 27 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 57–58.
170 Phillips, Diary entry, 28 Aug. 1917, HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
171 Phillips, Diary entry, 29 Aug. 1917, HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
172 Stovall to Lansing, 3 Aug. 1917, No. 1750. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
173 Stovall to Lansing, 9 Aug. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 198.
174 Meckling, Die Aussenpolitik des Grafen Czernin, 130–31.
175 Stovall to Lansing, 5 July 1917, No. 1162. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
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177 Stovall to Lansing, 6 Sept. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 195.
178 Stovall to Lansing, 13 Aug. 1917, No. 1415. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
179 Aufzeichnung über eine am 20. Jänner im k. u. k. Ministerium des k. u. k. Hauses und des Aeussern stattgehabte Besprechung, 20 Jan. 1917, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092 a P. A. I Nachlass Czernin, Nachlass Demblin.
180 AOK, “Über die Lage,” 19 Aug. 1917, Op. Geh. No. 390. HHStA, PA, Kt. 500 P. A. I.
181 Musulin to Czernin, 27 Nov. 1917, No. 1076. HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 7c–f USA 1915–1918 (hereinafter referred to as 898 P. A. I.).
182 Hoyos to Czernin, 6 Oct. 1917, No. 41/ P.–B. HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
183 From the Diary of Colonel House, 16 Sept. 1917, PWW 44, 200–203.
184 “Belgians at Oyster Bay,” The New York Times, 23 Aug. 1917, 8.
185 T. Page to Lansing, 11 Sept. 1917, No. 1079. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 52.
186 “Austria is Expected to Declare War on Us,” The New York Times (29 Aug. 1917): 3.
187 H. Wilson to Lansing, 1 Oct. 1917, No. 1775. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 54.
188 H. Wilson was right in that the current status of the Isonzo army was not good. Šedivý, Ivan, Češi, České země a velká válka [Czechs, Czech Lands and the Great War] (Praha, 2001)Google Scholar, 137.
189 For peace efforts of Mein's group, cf. Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion, 13–15.
190 Grant-Smith to Lansing, 22 Oct. 1917, No. 1112. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 63.
191 AOK to Außenmin., 22 Oct. 1917, No. 17813. HHStA, PA, Kt. 951 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 25a Friedensverhandlg.
192 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosures, 10 Oct. 1917, PWW 44, 347–51.
193 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
194 An Address in Buffalo to the American Federation of Labor, 12 Nov. 1917, PWW 45 (Princeton, NJ, 1984), 11–17.
195 See Meckling, Die Aussenpolitik des Grafen Czernin, 165 f.; or Snyder, Timothy, The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of a Habsburg Archduke (New York, 2008).Google Scholar
196 Lansing, Notes, 24 Oct. 1917. LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 63.
197 Lansing to Wilson, 21. 6 June 1917, No. missing. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
198 To Robert Lansing, with Enclosures, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 3–7.
199 Piotr Anczewski, Nie zardzewiał miecz…Katalog fotografii. Wojsko polskie we Francji, w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Rosji podczas I wojny światovej [The Sword Has Not Rusted. A Photography Catalog. The Polish Army in France, in the United States and in Russia during the First World War] (Warsaw, 2005), 15. Even prior to this, the Poles had some success in France. President Poincaré issued a decree on the creation of a Polish army in France on 4 July 1917.
200 Grew to H. Wilson, 17 Oct. 1917. HUL, Joseph. C. Grew Papers, Vol. 10.
201 May, Arthur J., The Passing of Hapsburg Monarchy 1914–1918, vol. I (Philadelphia/London, 1960)Google Scholar, 455.
202 “Italian Isonzo Front Collapses,” The New York Times, 30 Oct. 1917, 1.
203 Phillips, Diary entry, 29 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
204 Phillips, Diary entry, 31 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
205 T. N. to Lansing, 1 Oct. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 286.
206 T. N. Page to Wilson, 4 Nov. 1917, PWW 44, 506–9.
207 “Wants War on Austria,” The New York Times, 4 Nov. 1917, 2.
208 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 5 Nov. 1917, PWW 44, 513–14.
209 Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe, 193. In Berlin, Meinl met with the Secretary of the German Colonial Office Wilhelm Solf, his predecessor Bernhard Demburg, and others.
210 H. Wilson to Lansing, 22 Dec. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 483–84.
211 H. Wilson to Lansing, 28 Dec. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 511.
212 Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe, 192–94.
213 Hohenlohe to Czernin, 10 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 175 P. A. III Preussen Weisungen, Varia 1917–1918. The Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to Berlin, Prince Gottfried zu Hohenlohe Schillingsfürst, did not consider Meinl's plans to be realistic.
214 Horčička, Václav, Rakousko-uherská politika vůči sovětskému Rusku v letech 1917–1918 [Austro-Hungarian Policy towards Soviet Russia Between 1917 and 1918] (Prague, 2005)Google Scholar, 64. Czernin threatened the Germans with a separate peace here.
215 Czernin to the Emperor, 16 Oct. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092a P. A. I. A personal union was to be created between reestablished Poland and Austria-Hungary.
216 Valiani, The End of Austria-Hungary, 280.
217 Károlyi, Gegen eine ganze Welt, 241.
218 Ebenda, 250.
219 Hugh Wilson, Diplomat between Wars, 39–42.
220 In his memoirs, Hugh Wilson cited that Károlyi was supposed to “create an Austro-Hungarian government.” In a report to Washington at the time, H. Wilson claimed that the count was supposed to enter the “Cabinet.” In that context, it became apparent that he meant the cabinet of the Kingdom of Hungary. Ibid. Wilson to Lansing, 26 Nov. 1917, FRUS 1917, Suppl. 2, 322–25.
221 Wilson to Lansing, 26 Nov. 1917, ibid.
222 Ibid.
223 Károlyi, Gegen eine ganze Welt, 413.
224 Rothwell, V. H., British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (London, 1971)Google Scholar, 158.
225 House, Diary entry, 29 Nov. 1917. Yale University Library, Edward Mandell House Papers, Reel 4.
226 From Edward Mandell House, 15 Nov. 1917, PWW 45, S. 54. Another reason was the political crisis in France, when Painlevé's government fell. Georges Clemenceau became the new prime minister on 16 Nov. 1917.
227 Phillips, Diary entry, 12 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
228 Phillips, Diary entry, 13 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
229 Phillips, Diary entry, 14 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
230 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 12 Nov. 1917, PWW 45, s. 30–38.
231 Unfriendly Acts of Austria, Summary of Attached Memorandum, 20 Nov. 1917. LC, The Papers of Lester H. Woolsey, Box 13. The approval was issued on 6 Oct. 1917.
232 Lansing to Wilson, 20 Nov. 1917, No. missing, NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 62.
233 “Austria and the United States,” The New York Times, 28 Nov. 1917, 12.
234 “Congress Opens, Members Favor War on Austria,” The New York Times, 4 Dec. 1917, 1.
235 Secret probes between the United States and Austria-Hungary continued in the winter of 1918. See: Briggs, Mitchell P., George D. Herron and the European Settlement (Stanford, 1932)Google Scholar, 77.
236 Phillips, Diary entry, 1 Dec. 1917, HUL. William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
237 From Cleveland Hoadley Dodge, 2 Dec. 1917, PWW 45, 186–86.
238 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
239 An Annual Message on the State of the Union, 4 Dec. 1917, PWW 45, 194–202.
240 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
241 “Austro-Hungarian Integrity,” The New York Times (8 Dec. 1917): 14.
242 Phillips, Diary entry, 7 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
243 PWW 45, note 1, 224.
244 Czernin to Storck, 1 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
245 Tagesbericht, 2 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 59 P. A. XL Interna. Tagesber. d. Min. d. Äuss. 1917 IX–1918 IV.
246 Demblin to Czernin, 6 Dec. 1917, No. 15. HHStA, PA, Kt. 263 P. A. XL Interna. Telegr. von Demblin 1917–1918.
247 Anfrage, 3 Dec. 1917, No. 26/ R. D./1917, HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
248 H. Wilson to Lansing, 8 Dec. 1917, No. 2194. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 64.
249 Demblin to Czernin, 19 Dec. 1917, No. 36. HHStA, PA, Kt. 263 P. A. XL Interna Telegr. von Demblin 1917–1918.
250 President Wilson comments to Herbert Bruce Brougham of The New York Times, 14 Dec. 1914, sizing up the European conflict, in Hunt, Michael H., Crises in U. S. Foreign Policy: An International History Reader, Documents, No. 2 (New Haven/London, 1996)Google Scholar, 26.
251 May, Arthur J., “Woodrow Wilson and Austria Hungary to the End of 1917,” in Festschrift für Heinrich Benedikt, ed. Hantsch, Hugo and Novotny, Alexander (Vienna, 1957)Google Scholar, 214.