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Inigo Jones, ‘Vitruvius Britannicus’

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 April 2016

Vaughan Hart
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Extract

In July 1650 the Puritans tore down the statues of the two Stuart kings, James I and Charles I, which crowned the portico on the west front of St Paul’s Cathedral in London (Fig. 1). According to one contemporary report, under the new Republican authorities the portico’s Corinthian columns, which had been erected only a few years earlier by Inigo Jones (1573-1652), were ‘shamefully hewed and defaced’. Clearly his architecture, or certain forms of it, did not enjoy immunity from the Puritan animosity directed at royalist and religious iconography during the Civil War and its aftermath. This conflict had brought to a head the underlying religious tensions and related aesthetic sensitivities that Jones had had to respect throughout his career popularizing the antique (or all’antica) style of building. The Orders had run the obvious risk of being interpreted as foreign, pagan or — worst of all — Popish, at least by Puritans, and as such they required reconciling to English sensitivities and national identity.

Type
Research Article
Information
Architectural History , Volume 53 , 2010 , pp. 1 - 39
Copyright
Copyright © Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain 2010

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References

Notes

1 Dugdale, William, The History of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London (London, 1716 edn.), p. 115 Google Scholar. This material was added in the second edition, no doubt part of the material ‘corrected and enlarged by the author’s own hand’ (as the title reports).

2 See Strong, Roy, Britannia Triumphans: Inigo jones, Rubens and Whitehall Palace (London, 1980), p. 28 Google Scholar.

3 Peacock, John, The Stage Designs oflnigo Jones: The European Context (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 68–73, 291–92 Google Scholar; Strong, Roy, Henry Prince of Wales and England’s Lost Renaissance (London, 1986), p. 112 Google Scholar.

4 Orgel, Steven and Strong, Roy, Inigo Jones: The Theatre of the Stuart Court, 2 vols (London, 1973)Google Scholar; Parry, Graham, Golden Age Restor’d, the Culture of the Stuart Court, 1602-42 (Manchester, 1981), pp. 75–76 Google Scholar; Yates, Francis, Theatre of the World (London, 1969), pp. 174–75 Google Scholar.

5 Lines 24-45, quotation taken from Orgel and Strong, Theatre of the Stuart Court, pp. 158-67.

6 See Jonson, Ben, ‘An Execration upon Vulcan’, in Ben Jonson: Works, ed. Donaldson, Ian (Oxford, 1985), p. 365 Google Scholar; Palme, Per, Triumph of Peace: A Study of the Whitehall Banqueting House (London, 1957), p. 39 Google Scholar.

7 See Peacock, , Stage Designs, pp. 282–89 Google Scholar.

8 The portico inscription read: CAROLUS D:G MAGNAE BRITANNIAE, HIBERNIAE, FRANCIAE: REX F:D: TEMPLUM SANCTI PAULI VETUSTATE CONSUMPTUM RESTITUIT ET PORTICUM FECIT. See Hart, Vaughan, Art and Magic in the Court of the Stuarts (London, 1994), p. 44 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; King, John, A Sermon at Paules Cross, on behalf of Paules Church (London, 1620), p. 4 Google Scholar.

9 See Strong, Roy, Art and Power (Woodbridge, 1984), esp. p. 62 Google Scholar; Stevenson, Christine, ‘Occasional Architecture in Seventeenth-Century London’, Architectural History, 49 (2006), pp. 35–74 Google Scholar.

10 Stow, John, Annales, or, a Generall Chronicle of England (London, 1631-32 edn.), p. 1033 Google Scholar.

11 Yates, Frances, Astraea: the Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1975), figs 24-39; see also pp. 179, 222–23 Google Scholar.

12 Manley, Lawrence, Literature and Culture in Early Modern London (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 219, 223 Google Scholar.

13 See Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, ed. Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake (Basingstoke, 1994), pp. 251-54.

14 See Tudor-Craig, Pamela, ‘Old St Paul’s’: the Society of Antiquaries Diptych, 1616 (London, 2004)Google Scholar.

15 See Harris, John, ‘Inigo Jones’, Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects (London, 1982), p. 511 Google Scholar; see also Parry, Golden Age, p. 249.

16 See Hunneyball, Paul, Architecture and Image-Building in Seventeenth-Century Hertfordshire (Oxford, 2004)Google Scholar.

17 Palladio, Andrea, I quattro libri (Venice, 1570)Google Scholar, Book II, Chapter xvi: ‘the fore-part being thus made more eminent than the rest, is very commodious for placing the ensigns or arms of the owners, which are commonly put in the middle of the front’.

18 Harris, John and Higgott, Gordon, Inigo Jones: Complete Architectural Drawings (London, 1989)Google Scholar, [henceforth Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones], p. 86, cat. no. 21; p. 68, cat. no. 14; pp. 110-13, cat. nos 33-34.

19 Ibid., p. 36, cat. no. 3; p. 98, fig. 31 (Webb drawing); p. 251, cat. no. 82.

20 Ibid., p. 132, cat. no. 42; p. 134, cat. nos 44-45; p. 186, cat. no. 53. See Anderson, Christy, ‘Learning to Read Architecture in the English Renaissance’, in Albion’s Classicism, The Visual Arts in Britain, 1550-1660, ed. Gent, Lucy (New Haven and London, 1995), pp. 257–58 Google Scholar; Peacock, John, ‘Inigo Jones’s Catafalque for James V, Architectural History, 25 (1982), pp. 1–5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 See Auerbach, Erna, ‘Portraits of Elizabeth’, Burlington Magazine, 95 (1953), p. 205 Google Scholar; Palme, , Triumph of Peace, p. 33 Google Scholar. See also Renaissance Bodies. The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540-1660, ed. Lucy Gent and Nigel Llewellyn (London, 1990).

22 Guillim, John, A Display of Heraldrie (London, 1610-11)Google Scholar, ‘To the Courteous Reader’. Symmetria (‘harmony’) is a term frequently used by Vitruvius.

23 Wotton, Henry, The Elements of Architecture (London, 1624), pp. 35–36 Google Scholar.

24 Jonson, Ben, Newesfrom the New World Discover’d in the Moone (1620), lines 340-45, in Ben Jonson: Works, ed. Herford, Charles and Simpson, Percy (Oxford, 1925-52), 7, pp. 513–25 Google Scholar.

25 Marcelline, George, Epithalamium, Gallo-Britannicum (London, 1625), pp. 18–19 Google Scholar.

26 King, A Sermon, pp. 34, 37.

27 See Thomas, Keith, ‘English Protestantism and Classical Art’, in Albion’s Classicism, pp. 221–38 Google Scholar; Howard, Maurice, The Buildings of Elizabethan and Jacobean England (London and New Haven, 2007), pp. 98–100 Google Scholar.

28 See Juan Bautista Villalpando’s In Ezechielem Explanationes et Apparatus Vrbis ac Templi Hierosolymitani, 3 vols (Rome, 1596-1604).

29 Ben Jonson, ‘To Penshurst’ (c. 1612), lines 1-3 (Works (1925-52), 11, p. 33). See McClung, William Alexander, The Country House in English Renaissance Poetry (Berkeley and London, 1977)Google Scholar. See also Mowl, Tim and Earnshaw, Brian, Architecture without Kings: The rise of Puritan Classicism under Cromwell (Manchester, 1995), esp. pp. 59–71 Google Scholar.

30 See Phillips, John, The Reformation of Images: Destruction of Art in England, 1555-1660 (Berkeley, 1973), esp. pp. 121–40 Google Scholar; Aston, Margaret, England’s Iconoclasts (Oxford, 1988)Google Scholar; Duffy, Eamon, The Stripping of the Altars (London and New Haven, 1992)Google Scholar; Peacock, , Stage Designs, pp. 36-37 Google Scholar; Spraggon, Julie, Puritan Iconoclasm during the English Civil War: the Attack on Religious Imagery by Parliament and its Soldiers (Woodbridge, 2003)Google Scholar.

31 ‘Roman Sketchbook’, Devonshire Collection, Chatsworth, fol. 76r. See Inigo Jones’s Roman Sketchbook, ed. Edward Chaney, 2 vols (London, 2006), 2, pp. 167-68.

32 Giulio Romano’s column rustication (as used at the Palazzo del Tè) is referred to by Jones in his copy of Palladio’s/quattro libri, Book II, p. 12: ‘Coll[umn] Caprittio di Julio Romano’, pp. 13, 14, 22. He would have witnessed this whilst in Mantua in 1614, making notes on the Palazzo del Tè in his copy of Vasari’s Lives. Both copies are held at Worcester College, Oxford.

33 See, for example, Carlo Maderno’s façade of Sta Susanna, Rome (1597-1603). On the emerging Baroque, however, see Worsley, Giles, Inigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradition (New Haven and London, 2007), p. 24 Google Scholar; Carpo, Mario, ‘The Architectural Principles of Temperate Classicism’, Res, 22 (1992), p. 149 Google Scholar; Randall, Catharine, Building Codes: The Aesthetics of Calvinism in Early Modern Europe (Philadelphia, 1990)Google Scholar.

34 Warmstry, Thomas, A Convocation Speech … against images, altars, crosses, the new canons and the oath, &c (London, 1641), pp. 9–10 Google Scholar; Smart, Peter, A Short treatise of Altars (London, [1641?]), pp. 3–4 Google Scholar.

35 Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, p. 52.

36 Gurnay, Edmund, Gurnay Redivivus, or an Appendix unto the Homily against Images in Churches (London, 1660 edn.), pp. 8, 20–23, 59 Google Scholar.

37 See Peacock, Stage Designs, p. 98.

38 Shute’s illustrations of the Orders would have been understood by contemporaries as equivalent to moral emblems, or ‘trikes and devises’ (sig. Aijr) as he called the architectural drawings which he brought back from Italy. See Mark Girouard, Robert Smythson and The Elizabethan Country House (New Haven and London, 1983), p. 27.

39 On five ‘Towers of the Orders’ (Burghley House, Lincolnshire; Stoneyhurst, Lancashire; Merton College, Oxford; Hatfield House, Hertfordshire; and Old Beaupre, Glamorganshire), see Girouard, Mark, Elizabethan Architecture: Its Rise and Fall, 154.0-1640 (New Haven and London, 2009), pp. 311–16 Google Scholar.

40 Dedication in Chapman, George, The Divine Poem of Musaeus (London, 1616)Google Scholar. On this, see Anderson, Christy, Inigo Jones and the Classical Tradition (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 136–37 Google Scholar.

41 Wotton, , Elements, pp. 121–22 Google Scholar. See Thomas, , ‘English Protestantism’, p. 224 Google Scholar.

42 Wotton, , Elements, p. 106 Google Scholar.

43 Ibid., p. 37.

44 I Corinthians, chap. 5, vs. i and xii. See Hersey, George, The Lost Meaning of Classical Architecture (Cambridge, 1988), p. 66 Google Scholar.

45 Wotton, Elements, p. 38.

46 Ibid., p. 36.

47 On agreement between Jones and Wotton, see Wittkower, Rudolf, Palladio and English Palladianism (London, 1974), p. 143 Google Scholar; Harris, Eileen and Savage, Nicholas, British Architectural Books and Writers 1556-1785 (Cambridge, 1990), p. 502 Google Scholar.

48 Wotton, , Elements, p. 115 Google Scholar.

49 See Harris, and Higgott, , Inigo Jones, p. 84 Google Scholar: ‘Jones did not return from Italy in 1615 ready to be the full-fledged British Palladio or Vitruvius. There was a need to settle in, and to assess his new role as Surveyor of the King’s Works’. See also Tavernor, Robert, Palladio and Palladianism (London, 1991), pp. 125–26 Google Scholar.

50 Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530 to 1830 (Harmondsworth, 1993 edn.), pp. 61–80 Google Scholar; See Girouard, Robert Smythson; Girouard, Elizabethan Architecture.

51 See Howard, Deborah, Scottish Architecture: Reformation to Restoration, 1560-1660 (Edinburgh, 1995), p. 31 Google Scholar. See also Thomas, , ‘English Protestantism’, p. 229 Google Scholar.

52 The portico has much-simplified Corinthian columns and cornice (almost a ‘decorated’ Doric capital), possibly in reference to the established Elizabethan iconography of kingship and to Solomon’s temple, upon which the chapel was based. See Howard, , Scottish Architecture, p. 33 Google Scholar; MacKechnie, Aonghus, ‘James VI’s Architects and their Architecture’, in The Reign of James VI, ed. Goodare, Julian and Lynch, Michael (East Linton, 2000), pp. 154–69 Google Scholar.

53 See Willson, David Harris, King James VI and I (London, 1956), pp. 217–42 Google Scholar; Coward, Barry, The Stuart Age: A History of England, 1603-1714. (London, 1980), pp. 104–31 Google Scholar.

54 See Coward, Stuart Age, p. 111.

55 The elevation of the Star Chamber with its Corinthian pilasters is a revised scheme in John Webb’s hand from Jones’s design (of which only a plan remains): Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 98, cat. no. 29 and fig. 31.

56 As engraved in Catani, Baldi, La Pompa funerale di Papa Sisto il Quinto (Rome, 1591), pl. 24 Google Scholar; see Peacock, ‘Jones’s Catafalque’, pp. 1-5. Peacock, Stage Designs, p. 31 notes, ‘The inwardness of the statement shows how deeply [Jones’s] ideals are marked, culturally and aesthetically, by Protestantism’. See also Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 186-87; Higgott, Gordon, ‘“Varying with Reason”: Inigo Jones’s Theory of Design’, Architectural History, 35 (1992), pp. 69–70 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 On the Queen’s House, see Bold, John, Greenwich: An Architectural History of the Royal Hospital for Seamen and the Queen’s House (New Haven and London, 2000), p. 52 Google Scholar. See also Higgott, Gordon, ‘The Design and setting of Inigo Jones’s Queen’s House, 1616-40’, The Court Historian, 11.2 (2006), pp. 135–48 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Higgott, Gordon, ‘Inigo Jones’s Designs for the Queen’s House in 1616’, in The Renaissance Villa in Britain 1500-1700, ed. Airs, Malcolm and Tyack, Geoffrey (2007), pp. 140–66 Google Scholar.

58 Harris, and Higgott, , Inigo Jones, p. 66 Google Scholar, cat. no. 13. See Bold, , Greenwich, p. 45 Google Scholar. This attribution has been questioned, however, in Higgott, ‘The Design and Setting’, p. 138.

59 Held at the RIBA Library Drawings Collection, London; see also Bold, John, John Webb: Architectural Theory and Practice in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1989), p. 25 Google Scholar, fig. 9; Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 70.

60 Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 70, fig. 19.

61 Ibid., Inigo Jones, pp. 68, 70, cat. nos 14,15.

62 National Archives, Kew, AOI/356/2487; see Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 66.

63 The drawing is lost; see Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 226, fig. 67.

64 Sebastiano Serlio, Book IV, fol.158v; see Sebastiano Serlio on Architecture, 2 vols, trans. Vaughan Hart and Peter Hicks (New Haven and London, 1996 and 2001), 1, p. 320.

65 Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 228-35, cat. nos 72-76. On the sumptuous interior, see Bold, Greenwich, pp. 38, 62-76.

66 Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 103-05, cat. nos 30, 31.

67 The measurements on the elevation indicate that it was for a front façade of 70 feet, exactly the reported measurements of the building in a Parliamentary Survey of the building in 1649; see ibid., p. 103.

68 See ibid., pp. 101-02.

69 Inigo Jones, The MOST NOTABLE ANTIQUITY OF GREAT BRITAIN, Vulgarly called STONE-HENG, ON SALISBURY PLAIN, RESTORED (London, 1655), pp. 89-90.

70 Jones in Palladio, I quattro libri, Book IV, chapter 6, p. 14.

71 Gardiner,, Samuel Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage 1617-1623: A Chapter of English History (London, 1869), 1, p. 29 Google Scholar.

72 Chettle, George, ‘Marlborough House Chapel’, Country Life, 84 (1938), pp. 450–53 Google Scholar; Harris, John, Orgel, Steven and Strong, Roy, The King’s Arcadia: Inigo Jones and the Stuart Court (London, 1973), p. 123 Google Scholar. See also Leapman, Michael, Inigo: The Troubled Life of Inigo Jones, Architect of the English Renaissance (London, 2003), pp. 211–12 Google Scholar.

73 Generally the Corinthian dominated Catholic church-building from Constantine onwards. See Onians, John, Bearers of Meaning: The Classical Orders in Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 310–12 Google Scholar; Palme, Triumph of Peace, p. 20.

74 The window is almost certainly original to Jones’s design (see Harris et al., King’s Arcadia, p. 124). See also Worsley, Inigo Jones, pp. 138-39, 153-54.

75 See the plan in Colvin, Howard, The History of the King’s Works (London, 1963-82), 5, p. 246 and pl. 25 Google Scholar.

76 See Henry Flitcroft’s longitudinal section (c. 1720s: Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 182-83, cat. no. 51), Jones’s elevation for the closet chimneypiece and over-mantel (1624-25: ibid., pp. 184-85, cat. no. 52), and Johannes Kip’s engraving of the chapel interior (c. 1686: ibid., p. 184, fig. 51).

77 Colvin, King’s Works, 4, p. 249.

78 Only four drawings by Jones can be ascribed with certainty to the Somerset House chapel; Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 198-203, 322, cat. nos 59, 60, 61, 123): a plan and elevation for an external window surround, a sketch elevation for a niche, the elevation of a tabernacle frame, and an outline section of the chapel. See Thurley, Simon, Somerset House: The Palace of England’s Queens 1551-1692 (London Topographical Society, Publication no. 168, London, 2009), esp. pp. 45–56 Google Scholar.

79 In his Vitruvius at Book IV, p. 163, Jones referred to his design for an architrave at Somerset House in relation to an Arundel marble (a fragment of temple frieze) with gorgons’ heads (this marble was excavated on the site of Arundel House and is the same as that depicted by Van Dyck in the ‘Continence of Scipio’, painted for the Duke of Buckingham around 1621; see Harris et al., King’s Arcadia, p. 65).

80 The chapel was open to Catholic servants and their families. On the niche, see Simon Thurley, Somerset House, pp. 52-53; however, Harris and Higgott note: ‘Clearly it was, as inscribed, “without” or outside the chapel proper, […], “without” the chapel might mean in the Vestry House or vestibule behind the altar at the south end’ (Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 200). Kip’s illustration of Somerset House in Britannia Illustrata (London, 1708) gives no information as to the chapel’s external appearance.

81 Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 202.

82 Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, pp. 229, 244.

83 See Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, pp. 198-99, cat. no. 59; see the plan in Colvin, King’s Works, 5, fig. 22.

84 See Onians, Bearers of Meaning, pp. 310-12.

85 Lines 273, 300-03. See Veevers, Elizabeth, Images of Love and Religion: Queen Henrietta Maria and Court Entertainments (Cambridge and New York, 1989), p. 141 Google Scholar.

86 Peacock, John, ‘The French Element in Inigo Jones’s Masque Designs’, in The Court Masque, ed. Lindley, David (Manchester, 1984), pp. 155–57 Google Scholar.

87 See Higgott, ‘“Varying with Reason”’, p. 69.

88 Jones in Serlio, Queen’s College Oxford, fol. 17r, line 8 (which he underlines); square brackets denote letters cut off by the trimming of the fore-edge of the volume (I am grateful to Gordon Higgott for this information). See Higgott, , ‘“Varying with Reason”’, pp. 51–77 Google Scholar.

89 Jones, STONE-HENG, p. 68.

90 On Bedford’s religion, see Duggan, Dianne, ‘“London the Ring. Covent Garden the Jewell of That Ring”: New Light on Covent Garden’, Architectural History, 43 (2000), pp. 140–61 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

91 See Newman, John, ‘Laudian Literature and the Interpretation of Caroline Churches in London’, in Art and Patronage in the Caroline Courts, ed. Howarth, David (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 181–82 Google Scholar.

92 Reported in Howard Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in England, 2 (London, 1782 edn.), p. 275.

93 See Downs, Arthur Channing, ‘Inigo Jones’s Covent Garden: The First Seventy-Five Years’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 26 (1967), pp. 12–13 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 Royal letter (draft) to the Attorney General, in the Earl of Bedford Papers, Alnwick Castle, Y3, box 42/8.

95 Hatton, Edward, A New View of London (London, 1708), p. 478 Google Scholar.

96 See Summerson, John, Inigo Jones (Harmondsworth, 1966), p. 104 Google Scholar.

97 Harris and Higgott, Inigo Jones, p. 241, cat. no. 78.

98 See Palme, Triumph of Peace; Hart, Vaughan and Tucker, Richard, ‘“Immaginacy set free”: Aristotelian Ethics and Inigo Jones’s Banqueting House at Whitehall’, Res, 39 (2002), pp. 151–67 Google Scholar.

99 Yorke, Peter, ‘Iconoclasm, ecclesiology and “Beauty in Holiness”: concepts of sacrilege and “the Peril of Idolatry” in early modern England, c. 1590-1642’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Kent, 1977), pp. 10–11 Google Scholar.

100 See Parry, Golden Age, pp. 223-24.

101 These letters are held in the Barberini Library in the Vatican, but the correspondence is also available in the copies in the National Archives, Kew, Roman Transcripts, 9/17: Panzani’s letters to Barberini, and 10/10: Barberini’s replies. See Wittkower, Rudolf, ‘Puritaníssimo Fiero’, Burlington Magazine, 90 (1948), pp. 50–51 Google Scholar (reprinted in Palladio, pp. 67-70). See also Chaney, , Roman Sketchbook, 2, pp. 59–60 Google Scholar.

102 See Wittkower, ‘Puritanissimo Fiero’, pp. 50-51. See also Leapman, Troubled Life, pp. 18-19. Horace Walpole and most of the later biographers of Jones have stated that he was a Roman Catholic. Walpole’s authority was probably a note in one of George Vertue’s notebooks: ‘Dr Harwood from Sr. Christ. Wren, says that Inigo Dy’d at Somersett House in the Strand, a Roman Catholick, that he was put apprentice to a joiner in Pauls church yard’. See ‘Verrue Note Books: Volume 1’, Walpole Society, 18 (1930), p. 105; see also Notes and Queries, 178 (1940), p. 292.

103 Quoted by Wittkower, ‘Puritanissimo Fiero’, pp. 50-51.

104 See Banta, Andaleeb Badiee, ‘A “Lascivious” Painting for the Queen of England’, Apollo (June 2004), pp. 66–71 Google Scholar.

105 Giustinian, Giovanni, Calendar of State Papers (Venetian), 1640-42, 9 November 1640, ed. Allen Hinds, 25 (1924), p. 93 Google Scholar.

106 Boghurst, William, untitled (1666), in Lethaby, William, ‘Old St. Paul’s’, The Builder, 139 (26 December 1930), pp. 1988–90 Google Scholar. See Higgott, Gordon, ‘The Fabric to 1670’, in St Paul’s, the Cathedral Church of London, 604-2004, ed. Keene, Derek, Burns, Arthur and Saint, Andrew (New Haven and London, 2004), p. 182 Google Scholar.

107 Hall, Joseph, Bishop Hall’s Hard Measure, written by himself upon his Impeachment of high crimes and misdemeanours, for defending the Church of England (London, 1710), pp. 15–16 Google Scholar.

108 See Higgott, ‘The Fabric’, p. 186.

109 Dugdale, History (1716 edn.), p. 115. See also p. 148.

110 Calendar of State Papers Domestic, 1650 [London, (1876)], p. 261.

111 According to a report in the royalist Newspaper Mercurius Rusticus, the king’s swords were broken off, a cross from the globe in Charles’s hand was severed and his crown slashed. Mercurius Rusticus was re-published as Bruno Ryves, Angliae Ruina or England’s Ruine represented in the barbarous and sacrilegious outrages of the sectaries of this kingdome (London, 1647/8 edn.), see p. 233.

112 Worsley, Inigo Jones, pp. 129-32 (citing the portico at St Paul’s).

113 Dugdale, History (1658 edn.), p. 140.

114 Hering, Samuel, Original Letters and Papers of State addressed to Oliver Cromwell, ed. Nickolls, John (London, 1743), p. 99 Google Scholar.

115 See Downs, Channing, ‘Covent Garden’, p. 14 Google Scholar. On the internal alterations to the Laudian layout under Puritan control, see Newman, ‘Laudian Literature’, pp. 185-86.

116 Burton, Henry, For God and the King (London, 1636), pp. 160, 161–62 Google Scholar. During the 1650s there was even a movement in Parliament to demolish cathedrals; see Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, p. 198.

117 See Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, pp. 76, 81.

118 See ibid., pp. 72-73, 81-98.

119 The high altar in the Henry VII chapel at Westminster Abbey, erected by Pietro Torregiano in 1522 with Corinthian columns and pilasters, was destroyed around December 1643; see Sandford, Francis, A Genealogical History of the Kings of England and Monarchs of Great Britain (London, 1677), p. 471 Google Scholar.

120 Milton, John, Complete Prose Works of John Milton, ed. Wolfe, Don Marion (New Haven and London, 1953-82), 1, p. 556 Google Scholar; Paradise Lost, 1, line nos. 713-16.

121 In 1676 Wren described the site of the old palace as a ‘vacant yard’; see Colvin, King’s Works, 5, p. 214.

122 See Colvin, King’s Works, 4, p. 249. This screen does not appear in Henry Flitcroft’s section of the early 1720s. See also Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, p. 95.

123 See Spraggon, , Puritan Iconoclasm, pp. 61, 71–73, 95 Google Scholar; White, Michelle, Henrietta Maria and the English Civil Wars (London, 2006)Google Scholar.

124 Vicars, John, Magnaiia Die Anglicana, or England’s Parliamentary-Chronicle (London, 1646), part 2, p. 294 Google Scholar.

125 Worsley, Inigo Jones, p. 186; see also Mowl, and Earnshaw, , Puritan Classicism Google Scholar.

126 See Bold, John, Wilton House and English Palladianism (London, 1988)Google Scholar; Heward, John, ‘The Restoration of the South Front of Wilton House: the Development of the House Reconsidered’, Architectural History, 35 (1992), pp. 69–117 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Colvin, Howard, ‘The South Front of Wilton House’, in Essays in English Architectural History, ed. Colvin, (London and New Haven, 1999), pp. 136–57 Google Scholar.

127 In 1650 Sir Roger Pratt discussed with Jones the new design for Coleshill House, in the ruins of the old. See Pratt, Roger, The Architecture of Sir Roger Pratt, ed. Gunther, Robert Theodore (Oxford, 1928), p. 5 Google Scholar. See also Worsley, , Inigo Jones, pp. 43, 86–87, 175, 186 Google Scholar.