Adams, R. McC.
1966. The evolution of urban society: early Mesopotamia and Prehispanic Mexico. New York: Aldine.
Allsen, T.T.
1996. Spiritual geography and political legitimacy in the Eastern Steppe, in Claessen, H.J. & Oosten, J.G. (ed.) Ideology and the formation of early states: 116–35. Leiden: Brill.
Ashmore, W. & Knapp, B.A. (ed.). 1999. Archaeologies of landscape: contemporary perspectives. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ashmore, W. & Sabloff, J.A.. 2002. Spatial orders in Maya civic plans. Latin American Antiquity
13: 201–15.
Bairoch, P.
1988. Cities and economic development: from the dawn of history to the present. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Barfield, T.J.
1981. The Hsiung-nu imperial confederacy: organization and foreign policy. Journal of Asian Studies
41: 45–61.
Barfield, T.J.
1989. The perilous frontier: nomadic empires and China, 221 BC to AD 1757. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Barfield, T.J.
2001. The shadow empires: imperial state formation along the Chinese-nomad frontier, in Alcock, S.E.
D’Altroy, T.N.
Morrison, K.D. & Sinopoli, C.M. (ed.) Empires: perspectives from archaeology and history: 10–41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bayar, D.
1999. Baibalik, Khar Bukhyn Balgas, Khar Khul Khaanii Balgas, in Dashnyam, L.
Ochir, N.
Urtnasan, N. & Tseveendorj, D. (ed.) Historical and cultural monuments on the territory of Mongolia: 176, 188, 192–3. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Humanities.
Boyd, A.
1962. Chinese architecture and town planning, 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1911. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Boyle, J.A. (trans.). Malik Juvaini, Ata
1958. The history of the world conqueror, 2 vols. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Boyle, J.A.
1972. The seasonal residences of the great khan Ogedei. Central Asiatic Journal
16: 125–31.
Chang, C. & Tourtellotte, P.A.. 1998. The role of agro-pastoralism in the evolution of steppe culture in the Semirechye Area of Southern Kazakhstan during the Saka/Wusun Period (600 BCE-400 CE), in Mair, V.H. (ed.) The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age peoples of eastern central Asia, vol. 1: 264–79. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.
Cleaves, F.W.
1952. The Sino-Mongolian inscription of 1346. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
15(1–2): 1–123.
Davydova, A.V.
1995. Ivolginskii arkheologicheskii kompleks: Ivolginskoe gorodishche. Saint Petersburg: Aziatika.
Dawson, C. (ed.). 1955. The Mongol mission: narratives and letters of the Franciscan missionaries in Mongolia and China in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. New York: Sheed & Ward.
Di Cosmo, N.
1994. Ancient Inner Asian nomads: their economic basis and its significance in Chinese history. Journal of Asian Studies
53: 1092–126.
Di Cosmo, N.
2002. Ancient China and its enemies: the rise of nomadic power in east Asian history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Enkhbat, B.
1986. Khar Khul Khaanii Balgas. Studia Archaeologica
11: 1–15.
Frangipane, M.
1997. Arslantepe-Malatya: external factors and local components in the development of an early state society, in Manzanilla, L. (ed.) Emergence and change in early urban societies: 43–58. New York: Plenum Press.
Franke, H.
1978. From tribal chieftain to universal emperor and god: the legitimation of the Yuan Dynasty. Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Golden, P.B.
1982. Imperial ideology and the sources of unity among the pre-Cinggisid nomads of western Eurasia. Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
2: 37–76.
Hodges, H.W.M.
1972. Domestic building materials and ancient settlements, in Ucko, P.J.
Tringham, R. & Dimbleby, G. (ed.) Man, settlement and urbanism: 523–30. London: Duckworth.
Honeychurch, W.H.
2004. Inner Asian Warriors and Khans: A Regional Spatial Analysis of Nomadic Political Organization and Interaction. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan.
Honeychurch, W.H. & Amartuvshin, Ch.. 2002. Pastoral production, finance, and organization of a Medieval nomadic polity in Mongolia. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Denver, CO.
Honeychurch, W.H.
2005. States on horseback: the rise of Inner Asian confederations and empires, in Stark, M. (ed.) Archaeology of Asia. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Irons, W.
1979. Political stratification among pastoral nomads, in L’Equipe Ecologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales (ed.) Pastoral production and society: 361–74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jagchid, S.
1981. The Kitans and their cities. Central Asiatic Journal
25: 70–88.
Jagchid, S. & Symons, V.J.. 1989. Peace, war, and trade along the Great Wall. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Kato, S.
1997. The ancient city of Kharakhorum. Beijing: UNESCO/New World Press.
Keith, K.
2003. The spatial patterns of everyday life in Old Babylonian neighborhoods, in Smith, M.L. (ed.) The social construction of ancient cities: 56–80. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Kiselev, S.V. (ed.). 1957. Drevnie Goroda Mongolii. Sovetskaia Arkheologiia
2: 91–101.
Kiselev, S.V.
1965. Drevnemongol’skie Goroda. Moscow: Nauka.
Lot-Falck, E.
1956. A propos d’Ätugän, déese Mongole de la terre. Revue de l’Histoire des Religions
149: 145–96.
Mackerras, C.
1972. The Uighur empire according to the T’ang dynastic histories. Canberra: Australian National University.
Minorsky, V.
1947. Tamın ibn Bahr’s journey to the Uyghurs. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
12: 275–305.
Moriyasu, T. & Ochir, A.. 1999. Provisional report of researches on historical sites and inscriptions in Mongolia from 1996 to 1998. Tokyo: Society of Central Eurasia Studies.
Moses, L.
1974. A theoretical approach to the process of Inner Asian confederation. Etudes Mongoles
5: 113–22.
Perlee, Kh. 1961. Mongol Ard Ulsyn ert, Dundad Ueiin Khot Suuriny Tovchoon. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Sciences.
Plumer, L. & Roth, H.R.. 2002. Notes on a new city map of Qarabalgasun/Mongolia, in Roth, H.R. & Ulambajar, E. (ed.) Qara Qorum-city (Mongolia) I: preliminary report of the excavations 2000/2001: 103–4. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology 1.
Radloff, W.
1892. Atlas der Alterthümer der Mongolei. St. Petersburg.
Rashīd, al-Dīn. 1959. Jāmi’ al-Tavārīkh (ed. B. Karīmī). Tehran: Eqbal.
Róna-Tas, A.
1959. Some Data on the Agriculture of the Mongols, in Bodrogi, Tibor & Boglár, L. (ed.) Opuscula ethnologica memoriae Ludovici Biró Sacra: 443–72. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
Rosen, A.M., Chang, C. & Grigoriev, F.P.. 2000. Palaeoenvironments and economy of Iron Age Saka-Wusun agro-pastoralists in Southeastern Kazakhstan. Antiquity
74: 611–23.
Rossabi, M.
1987. Khubilai Khan: his life and times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Roth, H.R. & Ulambajar, E. (ed.). 2002. Qara Qorum-city (Mongolia) I: preliminary report of the excavations 2000/2001. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology 1.
Sanders, W.T., Mastache, A.G. & Cobean, R.H. (ed.). 2003. Urbanism in Mesoamerica, Vol. I. Mexico City and University Park: Instituto National de Antropología e Historia and Pennsylvania State University.
Savinov, D.
1989. The Sayano-Altaic centre of early Medieval cultures. Antiquity
63: 814–26.
Scott, K.
1975. Khitan settlements in northern Mongolia: new light on the social and cultural history of the pre-Chingisid era. Canada Mongolia Review
1: 5–28.
Shiraishi, N.
1997. The city planning of Kharkhorum: the capital of the Mongol empire. Arkheologiin Sudlal
17: 118–26.
Shiraishi, N.
2002. The archaeological researches on the history of the Mongol empire. Tokyo: Doseisha.
Sinopoli, C.M.
2001. Empires, in Feinman, G.M. & Price, T.D. (ed.) Archaeology at the millennium: a sourcebook: 439–71. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Smith, M.L.
2003. Early walled cities of the Indian subcontinent as “small worlds”, in Smith, M.L. (ed.) The social construction of ancient cities: 269–89. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Steinhardt, N.S.
1988. Imperial architecture along the Mongolian road to Dadu. Ars Orientalis
18: 59–93.
Stone, E.C.
1995. The development of cities in ancient Mesopotamia, in Sasson, J.M. (ed.) Civilizations of the ancient Near East: 235–48. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Tang, C.
1981. Agrarianism and urbanism, and their relationship to the Hsiung-nu empire. Central Asiatic Journal
1–2: 110–20.
Tkachev, V.
1987. Nomadic capitals in Central Asia. Information Bulletin: 114–18. Moscow: Nauka.
Trigger, B.D.
2003. Understanding early civilizations: a comparative study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tseveendorj, D.
1999. Kharkhorum, in Dashnyam, L.
Ochir, A.
Urtnasan, N. & Tseveendorj, D. (ed.) Historical and cultural monuments on the territory of Mongolia: 189–92. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Humanities.
Tsybiktarov, A.D.
2003. Central Asia in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages: problems of ethno-cultural history of Mongolia and the southern Trans-Baikal region in the middle 2nd-early 1st millennia BC. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia
13 (1): 80–97.
Ucko, P.J. & Layton, R. (ed.). 1999. The archaeology and anthropology of landscape: shaping your landscape. London: Routledge.
Ulambayar, E.
1999. Khar Balgas, in Dashnyam, L.
Ochir, A.
Urtnasan, N. & Tseveendorj, D. (ed.) Historical and cultural monuments on the territory of Mongolia: 187–8. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Humanities.
Vainshtein, S.I.
1980. Nomads of south Siberia: the pastoral economies of Tuva. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van Buren, M. & Richards, J.. 2000. Introduction: ideology, wealth, and the comparative study of “civilizations”, in Richards, J. & Van Buren, M. (ed.) Order, legitimacy, and wealth in ancient states: 3–13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vreeland, H.H.
1957. Mongol community and kinship structure. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files.
Wheatley, P.
1971. The pivot of the four quarters: a preliminary enquiry into the origins and character of the ancient Chinese city. Chicago, IL: Aldine.