Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T18:56:02.172Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SURVIVING CRISIS: INSIGHTS FROM NEW EXCAVATION AT KARPHI, 2008

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 December 2012

Saro Wallace  and
Dimitra Mylona
Saro Wallace*
Affiliation:
University of Heidelberg
Dimitra Mylona
Affiliation:
Swedish Institute at Athens
*
sarowallace@hotmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Seventy years after its first investigation, Karphi (Karfi) on Crete was the subject of a new pilot excavation in 2008. The main aim was to provide the first up-to-date detailed contextual records for the site across a representative area, thus filling in interpretative gaps left by the original extensive excavation. This paper presents and analyses these records with the aim of investigating the likely complexity of social systems at one of the largest new communities founded in Crete after the collapse of Bronze Age states c.1200 bc. Recent research has tended to focus on small villages, or on sites which later developed into poleis, meaning that crisis-period remains are poorly preserved. Occupied only between the crisis horizon of c.1200 bc and an important nucleation of Cretan communities at large ‘proto-polis’ settlements occurring in the early tenth century, the large Karphi site offers insight into the special challenges of creating large, potentially diverse new communities in crisis circumstances. It has one of the most dramatic of the new settlement locations, on steep-sided peaks 1100 m above sea level in an area which had never previously been settled. The social and economic adjustments needed here were particularly sharp and urgent, and the paper examines the structures which enabled them, using preliminary analyses of bioarchaeological data from the new project to assist reconstruction of the economy. The site has had other, highly specialised uses in its history, on which the new excavation has thrown light. The results highlight not only the resonance of this landscape in ancient consciousness, but also the ways in which such resonance could be exploited, both in the socially volatile post-collapse period and in the context of enhanced social and economic complexity as polis states started to come into being. Finally, a first set of radiocarbon dates from the new excavation is presented and assessed with regard to the dating of the Cretan Bronze to Iron Age transition and its wider ramifications.

Επιβιώνοντας την κρίση: πληροφορίες από τις καινούριες ανασκαφές στο Καρφί, 1200–1000 π.Χ.

Εβδομήντα χρόνια μετά τις πρώτες ανασκαφές, το Καρφί στην Κρήτη βρέθηκε στο επίκεντρο ενός νέου προγράμματος ανασκαφών το 2008. Ο κύριος στόχος ήταν να ερευνηθούν οι πρώτες τρέχουσες, λεπτομερείς και συναφείς πληροφορίες για τη θέση σε μια αντιπροσωπευτική περιοχή, έτσι ώστε να πληρωθούν τα ερμηνευτικά κενά που άφησαν οι αρχικές εκτεταμένες ανασκαφές. Αυτό το άρθρο παρουσιάζει και αναλύει αυτές τις πληροφορίες με σκοπό να ερευνήσει την πιθανή πολυπλοκότητα των κοινωνικών συστημάτων σε μια από τις μεγαλύτερες κοινότητες που εγκαθιδρύθηκαν στην Κρήτη μετά την πτώση των πολιτειακών δομών της Εποχής του Χαλκού γύρω στο 1200 π.Χ. Οι πρόσφατες έρευνες έχουν την τάση να επικεντρώνονται σε μικρά χωριά, ή σε θέσεις που αναπτύχθηκαν αργότερα σε πόλεις, κάτι που σημαίνει ότι τα κατάλοιπα που χρονολογούνται στην περίοδο της κρίσης δεν σώζονται επαρκώς. Η μεγάλη θέση στο Καρφί, έχοντας κατοικηθεί μόνο μεταξύ του ορίζοντα της κρίσης στην ανατολική Μεσόγειο γύρω στο 1200 π.Χ. και της σημαντικής συγκέντρωσης των κοινοτήτων της Κρήτης σε μεγάλους οικισμούς «πρώτο-πόλεις» κατά τον πρώιμο δέκατο αιώνα, παρέχει πληροφορίες εξαιρετικής σημασίας σχετικά με τις προκλήσεις της δημιουργίας μεγάλων, εν δυνάμει ποικίλων νέων κοινοτήτων σε συνθήκες κρίσης. Βρίσκεται σε μια από τις πιο δραματικές τοποθεσίες που παρουσιάζουν οι νέοι οικισμοί, πάνω σε κορυφές με απότομες πλαγιές σε υψόμετρο 1100 µ. πάνω από τη θάλασσα και σε μια περιοχή που δεν είχε προηγουμένως κατοικηθεί. Έτσι, οι κοινωνικές και οικονομικές προσαρμογές που ήταν επιτακτικές στο χώρο αυτό ήταν εξαιρετικά οξείες και επείγουσες και το άρθρο αυτό εξετάζει τις δομές που τους επέτρεψαν να επιτύχουν, χρησιμοποιώντας προκαταρτικές αναλύσεις βιο-αρχαιολογικών δεδομένων από το νέο πρόγραμμα για τον ανασχηματισμό της οικονομίας. Η θέση είχε και άλλες εξειδικευμένες χρήσεις κατά την ιστορίας της, τις οποίες οι καινούριες ανασκαφές έφεραν επίσης στο φως. Τα αποτελέσματα δίνουν έμφαση όχι μόνο στην απήχηση αυτής της τοπογραφίας στην αρχαία συνείδηση, αλλά στους τρόπους με τους οποίους αυτή η απήχηση μπορούσε να εκμεταλλευτεί, τόσο στην κοινωνικώς ρευστή περίοδο που διαδέχεται την πτώση όσο και στη δημιουργία έντονης κοινωνικής και οικονομικής πολυπλοκότητας καθώς οι πόλεις κράτη άρχισαν να αναπτύσσονται. Τέλος, παρουσιάζεται ένα καινούριο σύνολο από ραδιοχρονολογήσεις με άνθρακα από τις καινούριες ανασκαφές και εξετάζεται σε σχέση με τη χρονολόγηση της μετάβασης από την Εποχή του Χαλκού στην Εποχή του Σιδήρου στην Κρήτη και τις ευρύτερες επιπτώσεις.

Type
Articles
Information
Annual of the British School at Athens , Volume 107 , November 2012 , pp. 1 - 85
Copyright
Copyright © The Council, British School at Athens 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alram-Stern, E. 2007. ‘Characteristic small finds of LH III C from Aigeira and their context’, in Deger-Jalkotzy and Zavadil (eds.) 2007, 15–26.Google Scholar
Andreadaki-Vlasaki, M. and Papadopoulou, E. 2005. ‘The habitation at Khamalevri, Rethymnon, during the 12th century bc’, in D'Agata and Moody (eds.) 2005, 353–97.Google Scholar
Andreadaki-Vlasaki, M. and Papadopoulou, E. 2007. ‘Recent evidence for the destruction of the LM IIIC habitation at Khamalevri, Rethymnon’, in Deger-Jalkotzy and Zavadil (eds.) 2007, 27–53.Google Scholar
Betancourt, P.P. 1990. Kommos II. The Final Neolithic through Middle Minoan III pottery (Princeton).Google Scholar
Betancourt, P.P., Chlouveraki, S., Davaras, C., Dierckx, H.M.C., Ferrence, S.C., Hickman, J., Karkanas, P., McGeorge, P.J.P., Muhly, J.D., Reese, D.S., Stravopodi, E. and Langford-Verstegen, L. 2008. ‘Excavations in the Hagios Charalambos Cave: A preliminary report’, Hesperia 77, 539–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blitzer, H. 1996. ‘Implements and industries’, in Shaw, J.W. and Shaw, M.C., Kommos I. The Kommos Region and the Houses of the Minoan Town, Part 1 (Princeton), 403–537.Google Scholar
Borgna, E. 1997. ‘Some observations on deep bowls and kraters from the “Acropoli mediana” at Phaistos’, in Hallager and Hallager (eds.) 1997, 273–303.Google Scholar
Brock, J.K. 1957. Fortetsa: Early Greek Tombs near Knossos (London).Google Scholar
Bruun-Lundgren, M. and Wiman, I. 2000. ‘Industrial activities and personal adornments’, in Hallager and Hallager 2000, 175–83.Google Scholar
Callaghan, P.J., Johnston, A.W., Bikai, P.M., Hayes, J.W. and Jones, R.E. 2000. ‘The Iron Age pottery from Kommos’, in Shaw and Shaw 2000, 210–336.Google Scholar
Chapin, A.P. (ed.) 2004. ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr (Hesperia Supplement 33; Princeton).Google Scholar
Chrysoulaki, S. 1999. ‘Minoan roads and guardhouses – war regained’, in Laffineur (ed.) 1999, 75–83.Google Scholar
Chrysoulaki, S. 2001. ‘The Traostalos peak sanctuary: Aspects of spatial organisation’, in Laffineur and Hägg (eds.) 2001, 57–66.Google Scholar
Coldstream, J.N. 1960. ‘A Geometric well at Knossos’, Annual of the British School at Athens 55, 159–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coldstream, J.N. 2000. ‘Early Greek and Classical Crete’, in Huxley, D. (ed.), Cretan Quests: British Explorers, Excavators and Historians (London), 162–74.Google Scholar
Coldstream, J.N. and Catling, H.W. 1996. Knossos North Cemetery: Early Greek Tombs, 2 vols. (London).Google Scholar
Coldstream, J.N. and Hatzaki, E.M. 2003. ‘Knossos: Early Greek occupation under the Roman Villa Dionysos’, Annual of the British School at Athens 98, 279–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coulson, W. and Tsipopoulou, M. 1994. ‘Preliminary investigations at Halasmenos, Crete, 1992–1993’, Aegean Archaeology 1, 65–98.Google Scholar
Dabney, M. 1996. ‘Catalogue of miscellaneous finds: Ceramic loomweights and spindle whorls, jewellery and seals and lead objects’, in Shaw, J.W. and Shaw, M.C. (eds.), Kommos I, The Kommos Region and Houses of the Minoan Town, Part 2, The Houses of the Minoan Town (Princeton), 244–70.Google Scholar
Dabney, M. 1997. ‘Craft product consumption as an economic indicator of site status in regional studies’, in Laffineur, R. and Betancourt, P.P. (eds.), TEXNH: Craftsmen, Craftswomen, and Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 6th International Aegean Conference, Philadelphia (Aegaeum 16; Liège), 467–71.Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. 1999. ‘Defining a pattern of continuity during the Dark Age in central-western Crete: Ceramic evidence from the settlement of Thronos/Kephala (Ancient Sybrita)’, Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 41, 181–218.Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. 2002. ‘Ritual and rubbish in Dark Age Crete: The settlement of Thronos/Kephala (Ancient Sybrita) and the pre-Classical roots of a Greek city’, Aegean Archaeology 4, 45–59.Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. 2007. ‘Evolutionary paradigms and Late Minoan III. On a definition of LM IIIC middle’, in Deger-Jalkotzy and Zavadil (eds.) 2007, 89–118.Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. 2011. ‘Subminoan: A neglected phase of the Cretan pottery sequence’, in Gauss, W., Lindblom, M., Smith, R.A.K. and Wright, J.C. (eds.), Our Cups are Full: Pottery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age (Oxford), 51–64.Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. and Moody, J. (eds.) 2005. Ariadne's Threads: Connections between Crete and the Mainland in the Post-Palatial Period (LM IIIA2 to LM IIIC) (Athens).Google Scholar
D'Agata, A.-L. and Van de Moortel, A. (eds.) 2009. Archaeologies of Cult: Essays on Ritual and Cult in Crete (Hesperia Supplement 42; Princeton).Google Scholar
Day, L.P. 2009a. ‘Building A-B’, in Day, Klein and Turner 2009, 16–63.Google Scholar
Day, L.P. 2009b. ‘Ritual activity at Karphi: A reappraisal’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 137–52.Google Scholar
Day, L.P. 2011. The Pottery from Karphi: A Re-examination (London).Google Scholar
Day, L.P., Coulson, W.D.E. and Gesell, G.C. 1986. ‘Kavousi, 1983–1984: The settlement at Vronda’, Hesperia 55, 355–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, L.P., Klein, N.L. and Turner, L.A. 2009. Kavousi IIA. The Late Minoan IIIC Settlement at Vronda: The Buildings on the Summit (Philadelphia).Google Scholar
Day, L.P., Muhly, J.D. and Mook, M.S.M. (eds.) 2004. Crete beyond the Palaces. Proceedings of a Conference held at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 11–12 July 2000 (Philadelphia).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, L.P. and Snyder, L. 2004. ‘The “Big House” at Vronda, Kavousi, and the “Great House” at Karphi: Evidence for social structure in LM IIIC’, in Day, Muhly and Mooks (eds.) 2004, 63–79.Google Scholar
Day, P.M., Joyner, L., Kilikoglou, V. and Gesell, G.C. 2006. ‘Goddesses, snake tubes, and plaques: Analysis of ceramic ritual objects from the LM IIIC shrine at Kavousi’, Hesperia 75, 137–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deger-Jalkotzy, S. and Zavadil, M. (eds.) 2003. LH IIIC Chronology and Synchronisms: Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the Austrian Academy of Sciences at Vienna, May 7th and 8th, 2001 (Vienna).Google Scholar
Deger-Jalkotzy, S. and Zavadil, M. (eds.) 2007. LH IIIC Chronology and Synchronisms II. LH IIIC Middle: Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the Austrian Academy of Sciences at Vienna, October 29th and 30th, 2004 (Vienna).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Desborough, V.R.d'A. 1972. The Greek Dark Ages (London).Google Scholar
Devolder, M. 2009. ‘From the ground up: Earth in Minoan construction techniques. The case of Building 5 at Palaikastro’, Aegean Archaeology 8, 65–80.Google Scholar
Dickinson, O.T.P.K. 2006. The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries bc (London).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drews, R. 1993. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe 1200 ca. bce (Princeton).Google Scholar
Eliopoulos, T. 2001. ‘A preliminary report on the discovery of a temple complex of the Dark Age at Kefala Vasiliki’, in Karageorghis and Morris (eds.) 2001, 301–3.Google Scholar
Eliopoulos, T. 2004. ‘Gournia, Vronda, Kephala Vasilikis: A triad of interrelated shrines of the expiring Minoan Age at the isthmus of Ierapetra’, in Day, Muhly and Mook (eds.) 2004, 81–91.Google Scholar
Evans, A.J. 1896. ‘Explorations in eastern Crete, II. A town of castles’, The Academy 1259 (June 20), 512.Google Scholar
Evans, A.J. 1928. The Palace of Minos at Knossos. Volume II (London).Google Scholar
Evely, D. 1984. ‘The other finds of stone, clay, ivory, faience, lead etc.’, in Popham, M.R. (ed.), The Minoan Unexplored Mansion at Knossos (British School at Athens supp. vol. 17; London), 223–59.Google Scholar
Evely, R.D.G. 1993. Minoan Crafts: Tools and Teckniques, an Introduction. Volume 1 (Gothenburg).Google Scholar
Evely, R.D.G. 2000. Minoan Crafts: Tools and Techniques, an Introduction. Volume 2 (Jonsered).Google Scholar
Fiandra, E. 1973. ‘Skutelia MM a Festòs’, in Πεπραγμένα του Γʹ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Ρέθυμνο, 1971 (Athens), 84–91.Google Scholar
Gesell, G.C. 1985. Town, Palace and House Cult in Minoan Crete (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 67; Gothenburg).Google Scholar
Gesell, G.C. 1999. ‘Ritual kalathoi in the shrine at Kavousi’, in Betancourt, P., Karageorghis, V., Laffineur, R. and Niemeier, W.D. (eds.) 1999, Meletemata. Studies in Aegean Archaeology presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as he enters his 65th Year (Aegaeum 20; Liège), 263–7.Google Scholar
Gesell, G.C. 2004. ‘From Knossos to Kavousi: The popularizing of the Minoan palace goddess’, in Chapin (ed.) 2004, 131–50.Google Scholar
Gesell, G.C., Coulson, W.D.E. and Day, L.P. 1991. ‘Excavations at Kavousi, Crete’, Hesperia 60, 145–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gesell, G.C., Day, L.P. and Coulson, W.D.E. 1988. ‘Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, 1987’, Hesperia 57, 279–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gesell, G.C., Day, L.P. and Coulson, W.D.E. 1995. ‘Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, 1989 and 1990’, Hesperia 64, 67–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gesell, G.C., Glowacki, K.T. and Klein, N.L. (forthcoming) Kavousi III: The Shrine at Vronda (Philadelphia).Google Scholar
Glowacki, K. 2004. ‘Household analysis in Dark Age Crete’, in Day, Muhly and Mook (eds.) 2004, 125–36.Google Scholar
Hägg, R. 1990. ‘The Cretan hut-models’, Opuscula Atheniensia 18, 95–107.Google Scholar
Haggis, D.C. 1993. ‘Intensive survey, traditional settlement patterns, and Dark Age Crete: The case of Early Iron Age Kavousi’, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 6/2, 131–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggis, D.C. 2005. Kavousi I. The Archaeological Survey of the Kavousi Region (Prehistory Monographs 16; Philadelphia).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggis, D.C., Mook, M.S., Scarry, C.M., Snyder, L.M., Fitzsimons, R.D., Stephanakis, E. and West, W.C. 2007a. ‘Excavations at Azoria, 2003–2004, Part 1’, Hesperia 76, 243–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggis, D.C., Mook, M.S., Scarry, C.M., Snyder, L.M. and West, W.C. 2004. ‘Report on the Azoria excavations 2002–3’, Hesperia 73, 339–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggis, D.C., Mook, M.S., Snyder, L.M. and Carter, T. 2007b. ‘Excavations at Azoria, 2003–2004, Part 2. The Final Neolithic, Late Prepalatial, and Early Iron Age occupation’, Hesperia 76, 665–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallager, B.P. 2000. ‘The Late Minoan IIIC pottery’, in Hallager and Hallager 2000, 135–75.Google Scholar
Hallager, B.P. 2009. ‘Domestic shrines in Late Minoan IIIA:2 – Late Minoan IIIC Crete: Fact or fiction?’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 107–21.Google Scholar
Hallager, B.P. 2011. ‘The elusive Late IIIC and the ill-named Subminoan’, in Krzyszkowska, O. (ed.), Cretan Offerings: Studies in Honour of Peter Warren (British School at Athens Studies 18; London), 141–56.Google Scholar
Hallager, E. 2011. ‘A note on a lost stirrup jar from Knossos’, in Krzyszkowska, O. (ed.), Cretan Offerings: Studies in Honour of Peter Warren (British School at Athens Studies 18; London), 157–60.Google Scholar
Hallager, E. and Hallager, B.P. (eds.) 1997. Late Minoan III Pottery: Chronology and Terminology (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 1; Athens).Google Scholar
Hallager, E. and Hallager, B.P. 2000. The Greek-Swedish Excavations at the Agia Aikaterini Square, Kastelli, Khania, 1970–1987. Vol. II. The Late Minoan IIIC Settlement (Stockholm).Google Scholar
Hallager, E. and Hallager, B.P. 2003. The Greek-Swedish Excavations at the Agia Aikaterini Square, Kastelli, Khania 1970–1987 and 2001. Vol. III. The Late Minoan IIIB:2 Settlement (Stockholm).Google Scholar
Hatzaki, E. 2005. Knossos: The Little Palace (London).Google Scholar
Hatzaki, E., Prent, M., Coldstream, J.N., Evely, R.D.G. and Livarda, A. 2008. ‘Knossos, the Little Palace North Project, Part 1: The Early Greek Periods’, Annual of the British School at Athens 103, 235–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatzi-Vallianou, D. 2004. “Ομηρικά στοιχεία στην Ακρόπολη Σμαριού”, in Stampolidis and Giannikouri (eds.) 2004, 105–27.Google Scholar
Hayden, B. 1983. ‘New plans of the Early Iron Age settlement of Vrokastro’, Hesperia 52, 367–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayden, B. 1988. ‘Fortifications of postpalatial and Early Iron Age Crete’, Archäologischer Anzeiger 1988, 1–21.Google Scholar
Hayden, B. 2003. Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete. Volume 1: Catalogue of Pottery from the Bronze and Early Iron Age Settlement of Vrokastro in the Collections of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Archaeological Museum, Herakleion, Crete (Philadelphia).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayden, B. 2004. Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete. Volume 2: The Settlement History of the Vrokastro Area and Related Studies (with contributions by H. Dierckx, G.W.M. Harrison, J. Moody, G. Postma, O. Rackham and A.B. Stallsmith; Philadelphia).Google Scholar
Hayden, B. 2005. Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete. Volume 3: The Vrokastro Regional Survey Project: Sites and Pottery (with contributions by M. Hahn, G.W.M. Harrison, J. Moody, O. Rackham, M. Risser and A.B. Stallsmith; Philadelphia).Google Scholar
Kaniewski, D., Paulissen, E., van Campo, E., al-Maqdissi, M., Bretschneider, J. and van Lerberghe, K. 2008. ‘Middle East coastal ecosystem response to middle-to-late Holocene abrupt climate changes’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105/37, 13941–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanta, A. 2003. ‘The acropolis of Kastrokefala and its pottery’, in Deger-Jalkotzy and Zavadil (eds.) 2003, 146–65.Google Scholar
Karageorghis, V. and Morris, C.E. (eds.) 2001. Defensive Settlements of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean after c.1200 bc. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at Trinity College Dublin, 7th–9th May, 1999 (Nicosia).Google Scholar
Karetsou, A. 1974. “Ἱερὸν κορυφῆς Γιούχτα”, Πρακτικά της εν Aθήναις Aρχαιολογικής Eταιρείας 1974, 228–39.Google Scholar
Karetsou, A. 1981. ‘The peak sanctuary of Mt. Jouktas’, in Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds.), Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age (Stockholm), 137–53.Google Scholar
Klein, N.L. 2009. ‘Building Complex C-D’, in Day, Klein and Turner 2009, 79–123.Google Scholar
Klein, N. and Glowacki, K. 2009. ‘From Kavousi Vronda to Dreros: Architecture and display in Cretan cult buildings’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 153–74.Google Scholar
Klippel, W.E. and Snyder, L.M. 1991. ‘Dark Age fauna from Kavousi, Crete. The vertebrates from the 1987 and 1988 excavation’, Hesperia 60, 179–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knappett, C. 1999. ‘Assessing a polity in protopalatial Crete: The Malia-Lasithi state’, American Journal of Archaeology 109, 615–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knappett, C. and Collar, A. 2007. ‘Unpublished Middle Minoan and Late Minoan I material from the 1962–3 exacavations at Palaikastro, Crete (PK VIII)’ (with contributions by H. Sackett, P. Warren and V.E.G. Kenna), Annual of the British School at Athens 102, 153–219.Google Scholar
Koh, A.J. and Betancourt, P.P. 2010. ‘Wine and olive oil from an Early Minoan I hilltop fort’, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 10/2, 15–23.Google Scholar
Kotsonas, A. 2008. The Archaeology of Tomb A1K1 of Orthi Petra in Eleutherna (with a contribution by E. Nodarou; Rethymnon).Google Scholar
Laffineur, R. (ed.) 1999. Polemos: le Contexte guerrier en Egée à l'Age du Bronze: Actes de la 7e Rencontre égéenne internationale, Université de Liège, 14–17 avril 1998 (Aegaeum 19; Liège).Google Scholar
Laffineur, R. and Hägg, R. (eds.) 2001. Potnia: Deities and Religion in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 8th International Aegean Conference, Göteborg, Göteborg University, 12th–15th April 2000 (Aegaeum 22; Liège).Google Scholar
Levi, D. and Carinci, F. 1988. Festòs e la Civiltà minoica (Rome).Google Scholar
Macdonald, C.F. and Knappett, C.J. 2007. Knossos: Protopalatial Deposits in Early Magazine A and the South-West Houses (London).Google Scholar
MacGillivray, J.A. 1998. Knossos Pottery Groups of the Old Palace Period (London).Google Scholar
MacGillivray, J.A. 2007. ‘Protopalatial (MM IB-MM IIIA): Early Chamber beneath the West Court, Royal Pottery Stores, the Trial KV, and the West and South Polychrome Deposits groups’, in Momigliano, N., Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age (Minoan) (London), 105–51.Google Scholar
Maran, J., 2005. ‘Late Minoan coarse ware stirrup jars on the Greek mainland. A postpalatial perspective from the 12th century bc Argolid’, in D'Agata and Moody (eds.) 2005, 415–33.Google Scholar
Mazarakis Ainian, A. 1997. From Rulers' Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 bc) (Jonsered).Google Scholar
Moody, J.A. 2005. ‘Unravelling the threads: Climate changes in the Late Bronze III Aegean’, in D'Agata and Moody (eds.) 2005, 443–71.Google Scholar
Moody, J.A. 2009. ‘Environmental change and Minoan sacred landscapes’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 241–51.Google Scholar
Mook, M.S.M. 1993. ‘The Northwest Building: Houses of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages on the Kastro at Kavousi, East Crete’ (PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota).Google Scholar
Mook, M.S.M. 2000. ‘Subminoan pottery and cultural identity in Protogeometric Crete’, paper given at the conference Lighten our Darkness: Cultural Transformations from the Alps to Anatolia in the First Millennium bc, Birmingham University, January 2000.Google Scholar
Mook, M.S.M. 2004. ‘From foundation to abandonment: New ceramic phasing for the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age on the Kastro at Kavousi’, in Day, Muhly and Mook (eds.) 2004, 163–81.Google Scholar
Mook, M.S.M. (in preparation [a]) Kavousi IVA: The Early Iron Age Settlement on the Kastro. The Late Minoan IIIC through Orientalizing Pottery.Google Scholar
Mook, M.S.M. (in preparation [b]) Kavousi IVB: The Early Iron Age Settlement on the Kastro, Excavations and History of the Settlement.Google Scholar
Mook, M. and Coulson, W.D.E. 1997. ‘Late Minoan IIIC pottery from the Kastro at Kavousi’, in Hallager and Hallager (eds.) 1997, 337–71.Google Scholar
Morris, C.E. and Peatfield, A.D. 1995. ‘Pottery from the peak sanctuary of Atsipadhes Korakias, Ay. Vasiliοu, Rethymnon’, in Πεπραγμένα του Zʹ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Ρέθυμνο, 1990 (Rethymnon), 643–6.Google Scholar
Morris, M. 2003. Soil Science and Archaeology: Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete (Philadelphia).Google Scholar
Mylona, D. 1999. ‘The bones of suckling animals’, in Tzedakis, Y. and Martlew, H., Minoans and Mycenaeans: Flavours of their Time (Athens), 64–7.Google Scholar
Mylona, D. (forthcoming) ‘The animal bones from the pits’, in Rocchetti, L., D'Agata, A.-L. and Prokopiou, N. (eds.), Greek-Italian excavations at Thronos Kefala, Crete. The Pits (Rome).Google Scholar
Mylona, D. (in press) ‘The animal bones’, in Kopaka, K. (ed.), Της Ουρανίας το Φρούδι. The Cave and the Natural Niches (Athens).Google Scholar
Myres, J.L. 1902–3. ‘Excavations at Palaekastro. II. The sanctuary-site at Petsofa’, Annual of the British School at Athens 9, 356–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nodarou, E., Frederick, C. and Hein, A. 2008. ‘Another (mud)brick in the wall: Scientific analysis of Bronze Age earthen construction materials from East Crete’, Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 2997–3015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nodarou, E. and Iliopoulos, I. 2011. ‘Analysis of postpalatial pottery from Karphi’, in Day 2011, 337–48.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1987. ‘The history and setting of the town at Karphi’, Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 26, 235–56.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1991. ‘Report on investigations in Greece. VII. Studies in 1990’, Archeologia (Warsaw) 42, 137–45.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1992. ‘Fortifications in Dark Age Crete’, in Maele, S. van and Fossey, J.M. (eds.), Fortificationes Antiquae (Amsterdam), 53–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1994. ‘Some remarks on the pre- and protopalatial peak sanctuaries in Crete’, Aegean Archaeology 1, 31–48.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1995. ‘To Flechtron and other Dark Age sites near Kera Karfi’, in Πεπραγμένα του Zʹ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Ρέθυμνο, 1990 (Rethymnon), 693–702.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1999a. ‘The historical background of defensible sites on Crete: LM IIIC versus Protopalatial’, in Laffineur (ed.) 1999, 575–81.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 1999b. ‘Economy of refugees: Life in the Cretan mountains at the turn of the Bronze and Iron Ages’, in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete (Stuttgart), 145–73.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 2000. Defensible Sites in Crete, c.1200–800 bc (LM IIIB/C through Early Geometric) (Liège).Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 2002. ‘From Late Minoan IIIC refuge settlements to Geometric acropoleis: Architecture and social organization of Dark Age villages and towns in Crete’, Pallas: Revue d'Etudes Antiques 58, 149–74.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 2008a. Monastiraki Katalimata: Excavation of a Cretan Refuge Site, 1993–2000 (Philadelphia).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowicki, K. 2008b. ‘Some remarks on new peak sanctuaries in Crete: The topography of ritual areas and their relationship with settlements’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 122, 1–31.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. 2011. ‘Settlement in crisis: The end of the LM/LH IIIB and early IIIC in Crete and other South Aegean islands’, in Mazarakis Ainian, A. (ed.), The ‘Dark Age’ Revisited: Acts of an International Symposium in Memory of William D.E. Coulson, University of Thessaly, Volos, 14–17 June 2007 (Volos), 435–50.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K. (in press) ‘When the house becomes a fortress’, in Glowacki, K. and Vogeikoff-Brogan, N. (eds.), STEGA: The Archaeology of Houses and Households in Ancient Crete from the Neolithic Period through the Roman Era. Proceedings of a Conference at Ierapetra, Crete, 26–28 May 2005 (Princeton).Google Scholar
Peatfield, A.D. 1983. ‘The topography of Minoan peak sanctuaries’, Annual of the British School at Athens 78, 273–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peatfield, A.D. 1990. ‘Minoan peak sanctuaries: History and society’, Opuscula Atheniensia 18, 117–32.Google Scholar
Peatfield, A.D. 1992. ‘Rural ritual in Bronze Age Crete: The peak sanctuary at Atsipadhes’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 2, 59–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peatfield, A.D. 2009. ‘The topography of Minoan peak sanctuaries revisited’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 251–61.Google Scholar
Pendlebury, J.D.S. and Money-Coutts, M.B. 1935–6. ‘Excavations in the Plain of Lasithi I. The Cave of Trapeza’, Annual of the British School at Athens 36, 5–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendlebury, J.D.S., Money-Coutts, M.B. and Pendlebury, H.W. 1937–8. ‘Excavations in the Plain of Lasithi II’, Annual of the British School at Athens 38, 1–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendlebury, J.D.S., Pendlebury, H.W., Money-Coutts, M.B., Bailey, B., Desborough, V.R., Dikaios, P., Last, J.S., Lavers, R.S., Lorimer, H.L., Pascoe, M. and Thompson, W.F. 1937–8. ‘Excavations in the Plain of Lasithi III. Karphi. A city of refuge of the Early Iron Age in Crete’, Annual of the British School at Athens 38, 57–148.Google Scholar
Popham, M.R. 1965. ‘Some Late Minoan pottery from Crete’, Annual of the British School at Athens 60, 316–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popham, M.R. 1970. ‘Late Minoan IIIB pottery from Knossos’, Annual of the British School at Athens 65, 195–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poursat, J-C. and Knappett, C. 2005. Fouilles exécutées à Malia. Le Quartier Mu. IV. La Poterie du Minoen Moyen II: Production et Utilisation (Etudes crétoises 33; Paris).Google Scholar
Prent, M. 2003. ‘Glories of the past in the past: Ritual activities at palatial ruins in Early Iron Age Crete’, in van Dyke, R. and Alcock, S.E. (eds.), Archaeologies of Memory (Oxford), 81–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prent, M. 2005. Cretan Sanctuaries and Cults: Continuity and Change from Late Minoan IIIC to the Archaic Period (Leiden).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahmstorf, L. 2003. ‘Clay spools from Tiryns and other contemporary sites. An indication of foreign influence in LH IIIC?’, in Kyparissi-Apostolika, N. and Papakonstantinou, M. (eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Interdisciplinary Colloquium ‘The Periphery of the Mycenaean World’, Lamia, 26–30 September 1999 (Athens), 397–415.Google Scholar
Rethemiotakis, G. 1997. ‘LM III pottery from Kastelli Pediada’, in Hallager and Hallager (eds.) 1997, 305–37.Google Scholar
Rethemiotakis, G. 2009. ‘A Neopalatial shrine model from the Minoan peak sanctuary at Gournos Krousonas’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 189–99.Google Scholar
Rutkowski, B. 1986. The Cult Places of the Aegean (New Haven).Google Scholar
Rutkowski, B. 1987. ‘The temple at Karphi’, Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 26, 257–80.Google Scholar
Sackett, L.H. and Branigan, K. 1992. Knossos, from Greek City to Roman Colony. Excavations at the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos II (London).Google Scholar
Sackett, L.H., Popham, M.R. and Warren, P.M. 1965. ‘Excavations at Palaikastro VI’, Annual of the British School at Athens 60, 248–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seiradaki, M. 1960. ‘Pottery from Karphi’, Annual of the British School at Athens 55, 1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, J. and Shaw, M. 2000. Kommos: An Excavation on the South Coast of Crete by the University of Toronto and the Royal Ontario Museum under the Auspices of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Volume IV. The Greek Sanctuary, 2 vols. (Princeton).Google Scholar
Snyder, L.M. and Klippel, W.E. 1994. ‘The vertebrate faunal material’, in Coulson and Tsipopoulou 1994, 92–3.Google Scholar
Snyder, L.M. and Klippel, W.E. 1999. ‘Dark Age subsistence at the Kastro site, east Crete: Exploring subsistence change and continuity during the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age transition’, in Vaughan, S.J. and Coulson, W.D.E. (eds.), Palaeodiet in the Aegean (Oxford), 65–83.Google Scholar
Stampolidis, N.K. and Giannikouri, A. (eds.) 2004. Το Αιγαίο στην Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήροu. Πρακτικά του Διεθνούς Συμποσίου, Ρόδος, 1–4 Νοεμβρίου 2002 (Athens).Google Scholar
Tournavitou, I. 2009. ‘Does size matter? Miniature vessels in Minoan peak sanctuaries’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 213–31.Google Scholar
Tsipopoulou, M. 2001. ‘A new late Minoan IIIC shrine at Halasmenos, East Crete’, in Laffineur and Hägg (eds.) 2001, 99–103.Google Scholar
Tsipopoulou, M. 2004. ‘Halasmenos: Destroyed but not invisible. New insights on the LM IIIC period in the isthmus of Ierapetra. First presentation of the pottery from the 1992–1997 campaigns’, in Day, Muhly and Mook (eds.) 2004, 103–25.Google Scholar
Tsipopoulou, M. 2005. Η Ανατολική Κρήτη στήν Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου (Heraklion).Google Scholar
Tsipopoulou, M. 2009. ‘Goddesses for “Gene”? The Late Minoan IIIC shrine at Halasmenos, Ierapetra’, in D'Agata and Van de Moortel (eds.) 2009, 121–37.Google Scholar
Tsoukala, D. and Hatzi-Vallianou, D. 2000. “Πανίδα και διατροφικές συνήθειες στην Ακρόπολη Σμαριού κατα τη Γεομετρική/Ανατολίζουσα και παλαιοανακτορική εποχή”, in Πεπραγμένα του Ηʹ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Ηράκλειο, 1996 (Heraklion), 396–420.Google Scholar
Turner, L.A. 2009. ‘Buildings J, K and R’, in Day, Klein and Turner 2009, 125–61.Google Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2003a. ‘The perpetuated past: Re-use or continuity in material culture and the structuring of identity in Early Iron Age Crete’, Αnnual of the British School at Athens 98, 251–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2003b. Report on a study towards the development of 21st-century management and research strategies at the archaeological site of Karfi, Lasithi, Crete (archived, British School at Athens/23rd Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities).Google Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2005a. ‘Last chance to see? Karfi (Crete) in the twenty-first century: presentation of new architectural data and their analysis in the current context of research’, Annual of the British School at Athens 100, 215–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2005b. ‘Bridges in the mountains: Issues of structure, multi-vocality, responsibility and gain in filling a management gap in rural Greece’, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 18/1, 55–85.Google Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2006. ‘Subsistence and hinterland as factors in settlement location and sociopolitical change through the Early Iron Age of Crete’, in Πεπραγμένα του Θʹ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Eλούντα, 2001 (Heraklion), Τομ. A5, 161–79.Google Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2010a. Ancient Crete: From Successful Collapse to Democracy's Alternatives, 12th to 5th Centuries bc (Cambridge).Google Scholar
Wallace, S.A. 2010b. ‘The roots of the Cretan polis: Surface evidence for the history of large settlements in central Crete’, Archäologischer Anzeiger 2010/1, 13–90.Google Scholar
Ward, W.A. and Joukowsky, M.S. (eds.) 1992. The Crisis Years: The 12th Century bc from beyond the Danube to the Tigris (Dubuque).Google Scholar
Warren, P.M. 1969. Minoan Stone Vases (Cambridge).Google Scholar
Watrous, L.V. 1977. ‘Aegean settlements and transhumance’, Temple University Aegean Symposium 2, 2–6.Google Scholar
Watrous, L.V. 1980. ‘J.D.S. Pendlebury's excavations in the plain of Lasithi. The Iron Age sites’, Annual of the British School at Athens 75, 269–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watrous, L.V. 1982. Lasithi. A History of Settlement on a Highland Plain in Crete (Hesperia Supplement 18; Princeton).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watrous, L.V. 1992. Kommos III. The Late Bronze Age Pottery (Princeton).Google Scholar
Watrous, L.V. 2001. ‘Crete from earliest prehistory through the protopalatial period’, in Cullen, T. (ed.), Aegean Prehistory: a Review (American Journal of Archaeology Supplement 1; Boston), 196–220.Google Scholar
Whitley, A.J.M. 2001. The Archaeology of Ancient Greece (Cambridge).Google Scholar
Xanthoudides, S. 1921. “Ἀρχαιολογικὴ περιφέρεια (Κρήτης). Ἔρευναι, σκαφαί καὶ εὑρήματα κατὰ τὸ ἔτος 1919”, Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον 6, 154–65.Google Scholar
Yasur-Landau, A. 2010. The Philistines and Aegean Migration at the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge).CrossRefGoogle Scholar