Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-x4r87 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T20:59:16.970Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

RECYCLING AND RECONFIGURING: METALWORK OF MAYA COMMUNITIES AT LAMANAI AND TIPU, BELIZE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 March 2017

Bryan R. Cockrell  and
Scott E. Simmons
Bryan R. Cockrell*
Affiliation:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1000 5th Ave., New York, New York 10028
Scott E. Simmons
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina 28403
*
E-mail correspondence to: Bryan.Cockrell@metmuseum.org
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Analysis of the two largest southern Maya lowland metal assemblages, from Lamanai (n = 187) and Tipu (n = 99), Belize reveals that Mesoamerican and European technologies were negotiated through the processes of recycling objects to create new forms and juxtaposing objects of different provenances for bodily ornamentation. Lamanai's occupants began acquiring metal as early as a.d. 1100 and then engaged in on-site metallurgy as early as a.d. 1450, continuing into the early seventeenth century. Tipu was a nexus for metals between the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. At both sites, metal objects were recovered primarily from human burials and midden deposits. A program of typological study and compositional analysis revealed forms shared between the sites but evidence of on-site metallurgy is supported only at Lamanai. Metals from these Maya communities, both centers of Spanish reducción, demonstrate that the southern Maya lowlands was by no means a “refuge” from Spanish aggression.

Type
Research Article
Information
Ancient Mesoamerica , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , Spring 2017 , pp. 157 - 181
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Anonymous 1919 Mineral Resources of Guatemala. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 67:632–633.Google Scholar
Alexander, Rani T. 2005 Isla Cilvituk and the Difficulties of Spanish Colonization in Southwestern Campeche. In The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica, edited by Kepecs, Susan and Alexander, Rani T., pp. 161–181. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Andres, Christopher R. and Pyburn, K. Anne 2004 Out of Sight: The Postclassic and Early Colonial Periods at Chau Hiix, Belize. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse,Transition, and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S., pp. 402–423. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P. 1995 An Ancient Maya Seaport at Isla Cerritos, Yucatan. Lore 44(2):16–23.Google Scholar
Blackiston, A. Hooton 1910 Recent Discoveries in Honduras. American Anthropologist 12:536–541.Google Scholar
Blake, Michael 2010 Colonization, Warfare, and Exchange at the Postclassic Site of Canajasté, Chiapas Mexico. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, No. 70. New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo.Google Scholar
Boxt, Mathew 1993 Archaeological Inquiry at Sarteneja: A Report on Community Patterning, Diet and Economy at an Ancient Maya Coastal Site in Northern Belize . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Braswell, Geoffrey E., Gunn, Joel D., Carrasco, María del Roasario Domínguez, Folan, William J., Fletcher, Laraine A., López, Abel Morales, and Glascock, Michael D. 2004 Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S., pp. 162–194. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Bray, Warwick 1971 Ancient American Metal-Smiths. Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 1971:25–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, Warwick 1977 Maya Metalwork and its External Connections. In Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Essays in Honour of Sir J. Eric S. Thompson, edited by Hammond, Norman, pp. 365–403. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Breglia, Lisa 2006 Monumental Ambivalence: The Politics of Heritage. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Brown, Clifford T., and Witschey, Walter R. T. 2016 Electronic Atlas of Ancient Maya Sites. Electronic document, http://MayaGIS.smv.org, accessed July 2016.Google Scholar
Chapman, Anne E. 1957 Port of Trade Enclaves in Aztec and Maya Civilizations. In Trade and Market in the Early Empires: Economies in History and Theory, edited by Arensberg, Conrad M., Pearson, Harry W., and Polanyi, Karl, pp. 114–153. The Free Press, Glencoe.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 2007 “This is the End:” Archaeological Transitions and the Terminal Classic period at Caracol, Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 4:13–27.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z. 1982 Spatial and Temporal Variability in Postclassic Northern Belize . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 1988 A Postclassic Perspective: Excavations at the Maya Site of Santa Rita Corozal, Belize. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Monograph 4. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Cockrell, Bryan 2014 The Metals from the Cenote Sagrado, Chichén Itzá as Windows on Technological and Depositional Communities . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Cockrell, Bryan, and Salas, Guillermo 2012 Minds and Hands at Work: Reconstructing the Metallurgy of Ancient Mesoamerica. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 27:9–26.Google Scholar
Cockrell, Bryan, Sil, José Luis Ruvalcaba, and Díaz, Edith Ortiz 2015 For Whom the Bells Fall: Metals from the Cenote Sagrado, Chichén Itzá. Archaeometry 57:977–995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cockrell, Bryan, Martinón-Torres, Marcos, and Graham, Elizabeth 2013 Negotiating a Colonial Maya Identity: Metal Ornaments from Tipu, Belize. In Proceedings of the 38th International Symposium on Archaeometry, edited by R. H. Tykot. Open Journal of Archaeometry 1:e24.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency Chase 1992 Dredging the Cenote. In Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, edited by Coggins, C. C., 9–31. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C., and Shane, Orrin C. III (editors) 1984 Cenote of Sacrifice: Maya Treasures from the Sacred Well at Chichén Itzá. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Columbus, Ferdinand 1959 The Life of Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son, Ferdinand. Translated by Keen, Benjamin. Rutgers University Press, Brunswick.Google Scholar
Contreras, Jannen, Sil, José Luis Ruvalcaba, and Alatorre, Jesús Arenas 2007 Non-Destructive Study of Gilded Copper Artifacts from the Chichén-Itzá Cenote. Paper presented at the Particle Induced X-rays Emission and its Analytical Applications, Puebla, Mexico.Google Scholar
Deagan, Kathleen 1987 Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies of Florida and the Caribbean, 1500–1800, Volume 2: Portable Personal Possessions. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Dutton, Bertha P., and Hobbs, Hulda R. 1943 Excavations at Tajumulco, Guatemala. Monographs of the School of American Research No. 9. University of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Egan, Geoff, and Pritchard, Frances 2002 Medieval Finds from Excavations in London. 3, Dress Accessories c.1150– c.1450. Boydell Press, Woodbridge.Google Scholar
Emery, Kitty F. 1999 Temporal Trends In Ancient Maya Animal Use: Zooarchaeological Studies of Postclassic and Colonial Period Faunal Assemblages From Lamanai and Tipu, Belize. In Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet, edited by White, Christine D., pp. 61–81. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Franco Velázquez, F. and Grinberg, D. M. K. d. 2002 Cascabeles Especiales Procedentes del Cenote Sagrado de Chichén-Itzá, Yucatán. In Memorias: Mesa Redonda: Tecnologías Metalúrgicas en América Prehispánica, edited by Balderas, M. I. R. Vázquez, pp. 17–32. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1918 The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 64. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Garber, James 1989 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America. Volume II: The Artifacts. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Toni Ann 2013 Investigation of Chultun C-1 at Ka'Kabish. In Ka'Kabish Archaeological Research Project (KARP): Report on the 2013 Field Season, edited by Haines, Helen R., pp. 37–45. Belize Institute of Archaeology, Belmopan.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth 1987 Terminal Classic to Early Historic period vessel forms from Belize. In Maya Ceramics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Sharer, Robert J., pp. 73–98. BAR International Series 345. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth 1991 Archaeological Insights into Spanish Colonial period Life at Tipu, Belize. In The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, edited by Thomas, David Hurst, pp. 319–335. Columbian Consequences, Vol. 3. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth 2004 Lamanai Reloaded: Alive and Well in the Early Postclassic. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 1:223–241.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth 2011 Maya Christians and Their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth A., Pendergast, David M., and Jones, Grant D. 1989 On the Fringes of Conquest: Maya-Spanish Contact in Colonial Belize. Science 246:1254–1259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, Elizabeth, and Bennett, Sharon 1989 The 1986–1987 excavations at Negroman-Tipu, Belize. Mexicon 11:114–117.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth, Simmons, Scott E., and White, Christine 2013 The Spanish Conquest and the Maya Collapse: How ‘Religious’ is Change? World Archaeology 45:161–185.Google Scholar
Guderjan, Thomas H., and Garber, James F. (editors) 1995 Maya Maritime Trade, Settlement, and Population on Ambergris Caye, Belize. Labyrinthos, Culver City.Google Scholar
Guerrero Peñuelas, Gabriela, Cosme, Ingrid Jiménez, López, Pilar Tapia, Sil, José Luis Ruvalcaba, Arenas, Jesús, Lemoine, Aurore, Vargas, Jannen Contreras, Portilla, Patricia Ruiz, and Torres, Sonia Rivero 2012 Technical Study of a Set of Metallic Artifacts from the Maya site of Lagartero, Chiapas, Mexico. Materials Research Society Proceedings 1374:125–135.Google Scholar
Guillemin, George F. 1967 The Ancient Cakchiquel Capital of Iximché. Expedition 9:22–35.Google Scholar
Haines, Helen R. (editor) 2013 Ka'Kabish Archaeological Research Project (KARP) Report on the 2013 Field Season. Report submitted to the Belize Institute of Archaeology, Belmopan.Google Scholar
Hoggarth, Julie A. and Awe, Jaime J. 2014 Strategies of Household Adaptation and Community Organization at Classic and Postclassic Baking Pot. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 11:31–42.Google Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy 1986 The Origins, Technology and Social Construction of Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy . Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy 1994 The Sounds and Colors of Power: The Sacred Metallurgical Technology of Ancient West Mexico. MIT Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy 2001 Metals: Tools, Techniques and Products. In Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia, edited by Evans, Susan Toby and Webster, David L., pp. 454–457. Garland Publishing, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy 2009 West Mexican Metallurgy: Revisited and Revised. Journal of World Prehistory 22:185–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy 2014 Mesoamerican Metallurgy: The Perspective from the West. In Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, edited by Roberts, Benjamin W. and Thornton, Christopher P., pp. 329–359. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Hosler, Dorothy, Lechtman, Heather, and Holm, Olaf 1990 Axe-Monies and their Relatives. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, No. 30. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Jacobi, Keith 2000 Last Rites for the Tipu Maya: Genetic Structuring in a Colonial Cemetery. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Jones, Grant D. 1989 Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Jones, Grant D. 1998 The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Lambert, Joseph B., Graham, Elizabeth, Smith, Marvin T., and Frye, James S. 1994 Amber and Jet from Tipu, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:55–60.Google Scholar
Lee, Thomas A. Jr. 1969 The Artifacts of Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, No. 26. Brigham Young University, Provo.Google Scholar
Long, Stanley 1964 Cire Perdue Copper Casting in Pre-Columbian Mexico: An Experimental Approach. American Antiquity 30:189–192.Google Scholar
Lopez de Cogolludo, Diego 1688 Historia de Yucatán. Juan García Infanzón, Madrid.Google Scholar
Lothrop, Samuel K. 1936 Zacualpa: A Study of Ancient Quiche Artifacts. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 472. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Lothrop, Samuel K. 1952 Metals from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatán. With sections by W.C. Root and T. Proskouriakoff. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 10, No. 2. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Maldonado, Blanca 2008 A Tentative Model of the Organization of Copper Production in the Tarascan State. Ancient Mesoamerica 19:283–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maldonado, Blanca 2013 Mining and Metallurgy, and the Evidence for their Development in West Mexico. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica, Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 51–75. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Martinón-Torres, Marcos, Rojas, Roberto Valcárcel, Cooper, Jago, and Rehren, Thilo 2007 Metals, Microanalysis and Meaning: A Study of Metal Objects Excavated from the Indigenous Cemetery of El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:194–204.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather I. 1987 Wild Cane Cay: An Insular Classic period to Postclassic period Maya Trading Station . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather L., and Healy, Paul F. (editors) 1989 Coastal Maya Trade. Occasional Papers in Anthropology, No. 8. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.Google Scholar
Meanwell, Jennifer L., Paris, Elizabeth H., Alvarado, Wilberth Cruz, and Lope, Carlos Peraza 2013 Metallurgical Ceramics from Mayapán, Yucatán, Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:4306–4318.Google Scholar
Mencos, Elisa 2009 Los Artefactos de Cobre de la Costa Sur de Guatemala: Un Analisis de Casos Encontrados en los Sitios Carolina, Gomera y La Blanca. Tesis de Licenciatura en Arqueología. Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción.Google Scholar
Mencos, Elisa, and Moraga, Regina 2005 Artefactos de Metal de la Costa Sur de Guatemala. In XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2004, edited by Pedro, Juan Laporte, Barbara Arroyo, and Mejía, Hector, pp. 977–982. Museo Nacional de Arqueológia y Etnología, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Oland, Maxine H. 2009 Long-Term Indigenous History on a Colonial Frontier: Archaeology at a 15th–16th Century Maya Village, Progresso Lagoon, Belize . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston.Google Scholar
Ortiz Díaz, Edith, Cockrell, Bryan, and Sil, José Luis Ruvalcaba 2016 Las Distintas Tradiciones Metalúrgicas Presentes en las Ofrendas del Cenote Sagrado de Chichén Itzá. Arqueología Mexicana 23:72–74.Google Scholar
Palka, Joel W. 2014 Maya Pilgrimage to Ritual Landscapes. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Paris, Elizabeth H. 2008 Metallurgy, Mayapán and the Postclassic World System. Ancient Mesoamerica 19:43–66.Google Scholar
Paris, Elizabeth H., and Lope, Carlos Peraza 2013 Breaking the Mold: The Socioeconomic Significance of Metal Artifacts at Mayapán. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 161–202. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1960 The Distribution of Metal Artifacts in Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1962 Metal Artifacts in Prehispanic Mesoamerica. American Antiquity 27:520–545.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1970 Tumbaga Object from the Early Classic period, found at Altun Ha, British Honduras (Belize). Science 168:116–118.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1981 Lamanai, Belize: Summary of Excavation Results, 1974–1980. Journal of Field Archaeology 8:29–53.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1984 The Hunchback Tomb: A Major Archaeological Discovery in Central America. Rotunda 16:5–11.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1985 Lamanai, Belize: An Updated View. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Chase, Arlen F. and Rice, Prudence M., pp. 91–103. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1986 Stability through Change: Lamanai, Belize, from the Ninth to the Seventeenth Century. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Sabloff, Jeremy A. and Andrews V, E. Wyllys., pp. 223–249. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1989 The Loving Couple: A Mystery from the Maya Past. Royal Ontario Museum Archaeological Newsletter 2(30):1–4.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1990 Up from the Dust: The Central Lowlands Postclassic as Seen from Lamanai and Marco Gonzalez. In Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, edited by Clancy, Flora S. and Harrison, Peter D., pp. 168–177. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1993 Worlds in Collision: The Maya/Spanish Encounter in Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century Belize. Proceedings of the British Academy 81:105–143.Google Scholar
Piña Chan, Román 1970 Informe Preliminar de la Reciente Exploración del Cenote Sagrado de Chichén Itzá. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Pollard, Helen P. 1987 The Political Economy of Prehispanic Tarascan Metallurgy. American Antiquity 52:741–752.Google Scholar
Proskouriakoff, Tatiana 1962 The Artifacts of Mayapan. In Mayapan, Yucatán, Mexico, edited by Pollock, Harry E.D., Roys, Ralph. L., Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, and Smith, A. Ledyard, pp. 321–442. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 619. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2004 Activity Areas, Form, and Social Inequality in Late Postclassic Domestic Groups at Zacpetén, Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:351–367.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2009 Contagion and Alterity: Kowoj Maya Appropriations of European Objects. American Anthropologist 111:373–386.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W., Sánchez, José Rómulo, and Shiratori, Yuko 2012 Contact and Missionization at Tayasal, Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 37:3–19.Google Scholar
Robles Castellanos, Fernando 1986a Informe annual del Proyecto Arqueológico Cozumel: temporada 1980. Cuaderno de trabajo no. 2. Report submitted to the Centro Regional de Yucatán, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mérida.Google Scholar
Robles Castellanos, Fernando 1986b Informe annual del Proyecto Arqueológico Cozumel: temporada 1981. Cuaderno de trabajo no. 3. Report submitted to the Centro Regional de Yucatán, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mérida.Google Scholar
Root, William C. 1952 Metals from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itzá, Yucatán. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 10, No. 2. The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Root, William C. 1962 Report on the Metal Objects from Mayapán.” In Mayapán, Yucatán, Mexico, edited by Pollock, Harry E. D., Roys, Ralph L., Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, and Smith, A. Ledyard, pp. 391–399. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 619. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Roskamp, Hans, and Rétiz, Mario 2013 An Interdisciplinary Survey of a Copper-Smelting Site in West Mexico. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica, Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 29–50. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rostoker, W. and Bronson, B. 1990 Pre-Industrial Iron: Its Technology and Ethnology. Archaeomaterials Monograph No. 1. University Museums Publications, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A. 1977 Old Myths, New Myths: The Role of Sea Traders in the Development of Ancient Maya Civilization. In The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, edited by Benson, Elizabeth P., pp. 67–88. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Freidel, David A. 1975 A Model of a Pre-Columbian Trading Center. In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Sabloff, Jeremy A. and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C., pp. 369–408. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Rathje, William L. 1975 The Rise of a Maya Merchant Class. Scientific American 233:72–82.Google Scholar
Scholes, France V., and Adams, Eleanor B. (editors) 1938 Don Diego Quijada, Alcalde Mayor de Yucatán, 1561–1565. 2 vols. Editorial Porrúa, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Scholes, France V., and Thompson, Sir Eric S. 1977 The Francisco Ṕerez Probanza of 1654–1656 and the Matricula of Tipu (Belize). In Anthropology and History in Yucatan, edited by Jones, Grant D., pp. 43–68. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J. 1985 Terminal Events in the Southeastern Lowlands: A View from Quiriguá. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Chase, Arlen F. and Rice, Prudence M., pp. 245–253. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J., and Traxler, Loa P. 2006 The Ancient Maya. 6th ed. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Shugar, Aaron N. 2005 Metallurgical Investigation of Metal Artifacts from Lamanai, Belize. In Preliminary Report of the 2005 Field Season at Lamanai, Belize: the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project. UNCW Anthropological Papers 5. Papers of the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project 3. University of North Carolina, Wilmington.Google Scholar
Shugar, Aaron N. 2007 Microstructural and Chemical Analysis of Copper Artifacts from Lamanai, Belize. In Preliminary Report of the 2007 Field Season at Lamanai, Belize: The Lamanai Archaeological Project. Report submitted to Institute of Archaeology, Belmopan, Belize.Google Scholar
Shugar, Aaron N. 2008 Investigation of Copper Artifacts from Lamanai, Belize: Microstructural and Chemical Analysis. In Preliminary Report of the 2008 Field Season at Lamanai, Belize: the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project. UNCW Anthropological Papers No. 10. Papers of the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project No. 5. University of North Carolina, Wilmington.Google Scholar
Shugar, Aaron N., and Simmons, Scott E. (editors) 2013 Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica: Current Approaches and New Perspectives. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Sierra Sosa, Thelma N., and Castellanos, Fernando Robles 1988 Investigaciones arqueológicas en San Gervasio, Isla de Cozumel. In Cozumel: Un encuentro en la historia, edited by Saavedra, Eva and Sobrino, Jorge, pp. 1–6. Fondo de Publicaciones y Ediciones de Quintana Roo, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E. 1999 The Maya Metallurgy Project, Lamanai, Belize, 1999. Report submitted to the Belize Department of Archaeology, Belmopan, Belize.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E. 2004 Preliminary Report of the 2004 Field Season at Lamanai, Belize: The Maya Archaeometallurgy Project and the Lamanai Archaeological Project Field School. UNCW Anthropological Papers 2. Papers of the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project 2. University of North Carolina, Wilmington.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E. 2005 Investigations in the Church Zone: Maya Archaeometallurgy at Spanish Colonial Lamanai, Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 2:231–239.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E. 2006 Preliminary Report of the 2006 Field Season at Lamanai, Belize: The Maya Archaeometallurgy Project. UNCW Anthropological Papers 7. Papers of the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project 3. University of North Carolina, Wilmington.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E., Pendergast, David M. and Graham, Elizabeth 2009 Maya Metals: The Context and Significance of Copper Artifacts in Postclassic and Early Historic Lamanai, Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 34:57–75.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E., and Shugar, Aaron N. 2013a Archaeometallurgy in Ancient Mesoamerica. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica: Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 1–28. University Press of Colorado, Boulder Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E., and Shugar, Aaron N. 2013b Maya Metallurgical Technology in Late Postclassic-Spanish Colonial Times: The View from Lamanai, Belize. ArchéoSciences 37:105–121.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E., and Shugar, Aaron N. 2013c Archaeometallurgy at Lamanai, Belize: New Discoveries and Insights from the Southern Maya Lowland Area. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica: Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 135–159. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Simmons, Scott E., and Graham, Elizabeth 2017 Maya Coastal Adaptations in Classic and Postclassic Times on Ambergris Caye, Belize. In Trading Spaces: The Archaeology of Interaction, Migration and Exchange. Proceedings of the 46th Annual Chacmool Conference, edited by Margaret Patton and Jessica Manion. Chacmool Archaeology Association, University of Calgary, Calgary.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael E. 2003 Key Commodities. In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Smith, Michael E. and Berdan, Frances F., pp. 117–125. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Smith, Marvin T., Graham, Elizabeth and Pendergast, David M. 1994 European Beads from Spanish Colonial Lamanai and Tipu, Belize. Beads 6:21–47.Google Scholar
Strong, William D. 1935 Archaeological Investigations in the Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Vol. 92, No. 14. Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Taschek, Jennifer T. 1981 The Shell, Fine Stone, Bone, Wood and Copper Artifacts from Dzibilchaltun, Yucatán, Mexico . Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Tozzer, Alfred M. (editor) 1941 Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 18. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Urban, Patricia, Shugar, Aaron N., Richardson, Laura and Schortman, Edward 2013 The Production of Copper at El Coyote, Honduras: Processing, Dating, and Political Economy. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica: Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 7–112. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Vásquez, Alfredo Barrera 1980 Diccionario Maya Cordemex. Ediciones Cordemex, Merida.Google Scholar
Weeks, John M. 1977 Evidence for Metalworking on the Periphery of Utatlán. In Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Central Quiche, Guatemala, edited by Wallace, Dwight T. and Carmack, Robert M., pp. 55–67. Institute of Mesoamerican Studies, Publication No. 1. State University of New York, Albany.Google Scholar
Weeks, John M. 2013 Late Prehistoric K'iche’ metal working at Utatlán, Guatemala. In Archaeometallurgy in Mesoamerica: Current Approaches and New Perspectives, edited by Shugar, Aaron N. and Simmons, Scott E., pp. 113–134. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
White, Carolyn L. 2005 American Artifacts of Personal Adornment, 1680–1820: A Guide to Identification and Interpretation. AltaMira Press, Lanham.Google Scholar
Williams, Katherine E. 1990 An Examination of Maya Metallurgy, 1150 to 1544 A.D. Unpublished Bachelor's thesis, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Woodberry, Richard B. and Trik, Aubrey S. 1953 The Ruins of Zaculeu. United Fruit Company, Richmond.Google Scholar
Wurster, Wolfgang W. 2000 El Sitio Maya de Topoxté: Investigaciones en una Isla del Lago Yaxhá, Petén, Guatemala. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein.Google Scholar