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Title to Territory: Response to a Challenge

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2017

Georg Schwarzenberger
Georg Schwarzenberger*
Affiliation:
Reader in International Law in the University of London; Director of Studies, London Institute of World Affairs
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Extract

The purpose of this paper is to test further a theory of international law, developed elsewhere in outline and primarily based on the evidence of the work of international judicial institutions and Anglo-American state practice. The main thesis is that, on the level of unorganized international society, international law can be presented in terms of a system of interrelated legal rules from which seven fundamental principles of international law can be abstracted.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 51 , Issue 2 , April 1957 , pp. 308 - 324
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1957

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References

1 “The Fundamental Principles of International Law,” 87 Hague Recueil 195 et seq. (1955).

2 Ibid., and below, p. 312.

3 See further the writer’s Power Politics 261 et seq. (1951).

4 Judge Huber in the Palmas Island Case (1928) between The Netherlands and the United States of America, 2 United Nations Reports of International Arbitration Awards (hereafter cited as Int. Arb. Awards) 829 at 838; Scott, Hague Court Reports (2d Ser.) 83; 22 A.J.I.L. 867 (1928).

5 See below, p. 310.

6 A Manual of International Law 52 et seq. (3rd ed., 1952), and International Law, Vol. I (2nd ed., 1949). In the 3rd ed. of Vol. I (in the press) an attempt has been made to eliminate this shortcoming.

For further bibliographical references, see op. cit. (1949) 648–649, and op. cit. (1952) 234 et seq.

7 See below, p. 320.

8 See further loc. oit. note 1 above, p. 327 et seq.

9 Ch. de Visscher, Théories et Réalitiés en Droit International Public 244–245 (1953), 251–252 (2nd ed., 1955); and Johnson, Cambridge Law Journal (1955), p. 215.

10 [1951] I.C.J. Rep. 116 at 138; 46 A.J.I.L. 348 at 366 (1952).

11 See further 25 British Year Book of International Law 52 et seq. (1948), and 6 Year Book of World Affairs 251 et seq. (1952).

12 Palmas Island Case (1928), 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 839.

13 Ibid. 855.

14 Ibid. 846.

15 Ibid. 839.

16 Ibid.

17 5 A.J.I.L. 785 at 793–794 (1911).

18 Eastern Greenland ease (1933), P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, p. 50.

19 Ibid. 47.

20 See further loc. cit. note 8 above.

21 2 Int. Arb. Awards 1105 at 1110; 26 A.J.I.L. 390 (1932).

22 See below, p. 321.

23 See further loc. cit. note 8 above.

24 Cmd. 6648 (1945), pp. 2 and 7; 39 A.J.I.L. Supp. 171 (1945).

25 Cmd. 6964 (1946), p. 38; 41 A.J.I.L. 172 at 216 (1947).

26 See further op. cit. in note 6 above (1951), p. 308 et seq.

27 Minquiers and Ecrehos case, [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 53; 48 A.J.I.L. 316 (1954).

28 2 Int. Arb. Awards 1107 at 1110.

29 P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, pp. 45–48 and 62; and [1953] I.C.J. Sep. 65–67.

30 Palmas Island Award, 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 867.

31 Ibid. 840. Cf. also ibid. 855, and P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, pp. 45–46.

32 [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 78.

33 Ibid. 53, 78 and 98–99.

34 Judge Hsu Mo’s separate opinion in the Fisheries case, [1951] I.C.J. Rep. 157; Judge McNair’s dissenting opinion, ibid. 184. See, however, Judge Levi Carneiro’s individual opinion in the Minquiers and Ecrehos case, [1953] ibid. 104–105.

35 See further loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 228 et seq., and op. cit. note 6 above (1949), p. 62.

36 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 838.

37 P.C.I.J., Ser. B, No. 8, p. 20. See also above, p. 314.

38 P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, p. 68.

39 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 846 et seq. See also ibid. 868.

40 Ibid. 27.

41 Alp Craivarola Arbitration (1874) between Italy and Switzerland, La Fontaine, Pasicrisie Internationale, p. 201, and Moore, 2 International Arbitrations 2027, as interpreted in the Palmas Island Case (1928), 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 855.

42 Ibid. at 869.

43 Ibid. 854.

44 See further loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 262 et seq.

45 See further op. cit. note 6 above (1949), pp. 67–68.

46 Case of German Reparations under Article 260 of the Peace Treaty of Versailles (1924), 1 Int. Arb. Awards 429 at 443.

47 See above, p. 314.

48 Cf. Judge Basdevant’s individual opinion in the Minquiers and Ecrehos case, [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 76–77.

49 Ottoman Debt Arbitration (1925), 1 Int. Arb. Awards 529 at 555.

50 See further loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 376 et seq.

51 P.C.I.J., Ser. B, No. 8, p. 53.

52 P.C.I.J., Ser. A, No. 7, p. 30; Ser. B, No. 6, p. 28; Ser. A/B, No. 71, p. 103. Cf. also Ser. A/B, No. 62, p. 24.

53 1 Scott, Hague Court Beports 121 at 124.

54 P.C.I.J., Ser. B, No. 12, p. 22.

55 [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 52; 48 A.J.I.L. 316 (1954).

56 [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 57.

57 Ibid. 67.

58 1 Int. Arb. Awards 223 at 228.

59 2 ibid. 1307 at 1322–1325.

60 Ibid. 1105 at 1110.

61 See above, p. 318 et seq.

62 38 Rev. de Droit Int. et de Lég. Comp. 196 at 207 (1906).

63 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 839; and P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, p. 50.

64 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 867, 868 and 870.

65 Ibid. at 868. Cf. also the Clipperton Island case (1931), ibid. 1105 at 1108 and 1110.

66 Ibid. at 840.

67 See further loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 256 et seq.

68 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 840.

69 Grisbadarna case (1909) between Norway and Sweden, 1 Scott, Hague Court Reports 121 at 130.

70 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 856; and P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 53, p. 45. See also above, p. 312.

71 Par. 3 of Art. 2 of the United Nations Charter. On the interrelationship between Pars. 3 and 4 of Art. 2 of the Charter, cf. loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 354.

72 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 843. See also ibid. 869.

73 Ibid. 842. Cf. also Judge Levi Cameiro’s dissenting opinion in the Minqniers and Ecrehos Case, [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 103.

74 See above, pp. 316 and 318.

75 See above, p. 309.

76 2 Int. Arb. Awards 829 at 846. See also above, p. 315.

77 See further loc. cit. note 1 above, p. 358 et seq.