Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T01:14:19.594Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

What's New About the Restoration?*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2014

Tim Harris
Get access

Extract

When I first began my researches into later Stuart history as a graduate student back in 1980, the Restoration was a relatively underdeveloped field of inquiry. Although there were a number of scholars producing excellent work in this area, there was not the same depth of scholarship as characterized study of the first half of the seventeenth century: wide gaps in our knowledge existed, and for some of the most crucial episodes of the period we were dependent upon a limited range of studies and dated works. The best general entrée into the period was still David Ogg's classic two-volume England in the Reign of Charles II, first published in 1934! A suitable modern textbook did not emerge until 1978, with the publication of J. R. Jones's County and Court: England 1658–1714, a book that had neither Ogg's range nor lively analytical style. For our understanding of why the monarchy was restored we were reliant upon a study that had come out in 1955, which was supplemented only in 1980 by Austin Woolrych's book-length “Historical Introduction” to volume seven of the Yale edition of the Complete Prose Works of John Milton. On the Exclusion Crisis we had J. R. Jones's The First Whigs, which had appeared in 1961, although for the first Tories we still needed to use Sir Keith Feiling's 1924 History of the Tory Party. For the Glorious Revolution we had a book written by a man who tragically died (at a young age) before he could complete the work, and another self-consciously thought-provoking work designed to raise questions and suggest future avenues of research—both excellent studies in their own right, but hardly the plethora of monographs that we possessed for the mid-century revolution.

Type
Research Article
Information
Albion , Volume 29 , Issue 2 , Summer 1997 , pp. 187 - 222
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference on British Studies 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I would like to thank Mark Goldie, Dick Greaves, and Mike Moore for their comments and criticisms on earlier drafts of this article. I also am indebted to the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation for the award of a fellowship for the academic year 1996–97, during which time this article was conceived and written.

References

1 Davies, Godfrey, The Restoration of Charles II, 1658–60 (San Marino, 1955)Google Scholar; Woolrych, Austin, “Historical Introduction,” to Complete Prose Works of John Milton, 8 vols. (New Haven, 1953–1982), 8: 1–228Google Scholar.

2 Western, J. R., Monarchy and Revolution: The English State in the 1680s (London, 1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Jones, J. R., The Revolution of 1688 in England (London, 1972)Google Scholar.

4 For the historiographical state of play in c. 1980, see Morrill, John, Seventeenth-Century Britain (Folkstone, 1980)Google Scholar. Of those works to appear during the 1970s, the following deserve mention here: Green, I. M., The Re-establishment of the Church of England 1660–1663 (Oxford, 1978)Google Scholar; Miller, John, Popery and Politics in England, 1660–1688 (Cambridge, 1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schwoerer, Lois G., “No Standing Armies!”: The Anti-Army Ideology in Seventeenth-Century England (Baltimore, 1974)Google Scholar.

5 See also Glassey, Lionel, ed., The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II (Basingstoke, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, which replaces Jones's, J. R. earlier volume, The Restored Monarchy 1660–1688 (London, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A lively general survey of the Stuart century that also takes in Scotland and Ireland is Kishlansky, Mark, A Monarchy Transformed: Britain 1603–1714 (Harmondsworth, 1996)Google Scholar.

6 See, for example, R. A. Beddard's review of recent scholarship on the Glorious Revolution, in Journal of Modern History 67 (1995): 407–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Scott, Jonathan, Algernon Sidney and the English Republic, 1623–1677 (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar, and Algernon Sidney and the Restoration Crisis, 1677–1683 (Cambridge, 1991)Google Scholar.

8 Cromartie, Alan, Sir Matthew Hale 1609–1676: Law, Religion, and Natural Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Schwoerer, Lois G., Lady Rachel Russell: “One of the Best of Women” (Baltimore, 1988)Google Scholar.

10 Miller, John, James II: A Study in Kingship (Hove, 1978; repr. London 1989)Google Scholar, has value, but is beginning to appear dated.

11 Seaward, Paul, The Cavalier Parliament and the Reconstruction of the Old Regime, 1661–1667 (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar.

12 Browning, Andrew, ed., English Historical Documents, 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1953), p. 61Google Scholar. Even the Quakers shared the view that the Restoration was wrought by the hand of God. See Greaves, Richard L., “Shattered Expectations? George Fox, the Quakers, and the Restoration State, 1660–1685,” Albion 24 (Summer, 1992): 237–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 For the royalist conspiracies of the 1650s, see Underdown, David, Royalist Conspiracy in England 1649–1660 (New Haven, 1960)Google Scholar. For Booth, in addition to Hutton, see Morrill, John, Cheshire, 1630–1660: County Government and Society during the English Revolution (Oxford, 1974)Google Scholar.

14 Morley, George, A Sermon Preached at the Magnificent Coronation of … Charles the IId (London, 1661), p. 36Google Scholar; Seaward, , Cavalier Parliament, pp. 44–48Google Scholar. See also Harris, Tim, Politics under the Later Stuarts (New York: 1993), pp. 36–37Google Scholar.

15 As has often been the case with seventeenth-century studies, Christopher Hill led the way. See in particular his The Experience of Defeat: Milton and Some Contemporaries (London, 1984)Google Scholar.

16 Greaves, Richard L., Deliver Us from Evil: The Radical Underground in Britain, 1660–1663 (Oxford, 1986)Google Scholar; Enemies under His Feet: Radicals and Nonconformists in Britain, 1664–1677 (Stanford, 1990)Google Scholar; Secrets of the Kingdom: British Radicals from the Popish Plot to the Revolution of 1688–89 (Stanford, 1992)Google Scholar.

17 Greaves has least to say about the Monmouth rebellion of 1685, because that already had been the subject of a number of studies. See in particular Clifton, Robin, The Last Popular Rebellion: The Western Rising of 1685 (London, 1984)Google Scholar; Earle, Peter, Monmouth's Rebels: The Road to Sedgemoor (London, 1977)Google Scholar.

18 The interpretative problems were spelled out many years ago in an excellent unpublished thesis by Johnson, W. G., “Post Restoration Nonconformity and Plotting, 1660–1675” (M.A. thesis, University of Manchester, 1967)Google Scholar.

19 Greaves, , Deliver Us From Evil, p. 21Google Scholar.

20 Marshall, Alan, Intelligence and Espionage in the Reign of Charles II, 1660–1685 (Cambridge, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 De Krey, Gary S., “London Radicals and Revolutionary Politics, 1675–1683,” in The Politics of Religion in Restoration England, eds. Harris, Tim, Seaward, Paul, and Goldie, Mark (Oxford, 1990), pp. 133–62Google Scholar; “The London Whigs and the Exclusion Crisis Reconsidered,” in The First Modern Society: Essays in English History in Honour of Lawrence Stone, eds. Beier, Lee, Cannadine, David, and Rosenheim, James (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 457–82Google Scholar; “The First Restoration Crisis: Conscience and Coercion in London, 1667–73,” Albion 25 (Fall, 1993): 565–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Rethinking the Restoration: Dissenting Cases for Conscience, 1667–1672,” Historical Journal 38 (1995): 53–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Reformation in the Restoration Crisis, 1679–82,” in Religion, Literature and Politics in Post-Reformation England, 1540–1688, eds. Hamilton, Donna and Strier, Richard (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 231–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Radicals, Reformers, and Republicans: Academic Language and Political Discourse in Restoration London,” in A Nation Transformed? eds. Alan Houston and Steven C. A. Pincus (forthcoming). We eagerly await the publication of De Krey's forthcoming book.

22 Harris, Tim, “‘Lives, Liberties and Estates’: Rhetorics of Liberty in the Reign of Charles II,” in Politics of Religion, pp. 217–41Google Scholar.

23 The classic older study is Cragg, G. R., Puritanism in the Period of the Great Persecution (Cambridge, 1957)Google Scholar. For the political machinations of the Dissenters, Lacey's, Douglas R.Dissent and Parliamentary Politics in England, 1661–1689 (Rutgers, 1969)Google Scholar remains indispensable.

24 For the impact of persecution and how the penal laws were enforced, see in particular Fletcher, A. J., “The Enforcement of the Conventicle Acts 1664–1679,” in Persecution and Toleration ed. Sheils, W. J. (Studies in Church History, 21: Oxford, 1984), pp. 235–46Google Scholar; Harris, Tim, London Crowds in the Reign of Charles II: Propaganda and Politics from the Restoration until the Exclusion Crisis (Cambridge, 1987), ch. 4Google Scholar; Horle, Craig W., The Quakers and the English Legal System, 1660–1688 (Philadelphia, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For nonconformist writing and the literary response to persecution in Restoration England see Keeble, N. H., The Literary Culture of Nonconformity in Seventeenth-Century England (Athens, Ga., 1987)Google Scholar. The Quakers are the best studied of the sects. In addition to Horle's book, see: Ingle, H. Larry, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism (Oxford, 1994)Google Scholar; Kunze, Bonnelyn, Margaret Fell and the Rise of Quakerism (Stanford, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. There also has been a recent renaissance in Bunyon studies. See especially Hill, Christopher, A Turbulent, Seditious and Factious People: John Bunyan and his Church, 1628–1688 (Oxford, 1988)Google Scholar; Mullett, Michael, John Bunyan in Context (Keele, 1996)Google Scholar.

25 Hurwich, J. J., “‘A Fanatick Town’: The Political Influence of Dissenters in Coventry, 1660–1720,” Midland History, 4 (1977): 15—47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Underdown, David, Fire from Heaven: Life in an English Town in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven, 1992)Google Scholar.

26 Norrey, P. J., “The Restoration Regime in Action: The Relationship between Central and Local Government in Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire,” Historical Journal 31 (1988): 789–812CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coleby, Andrew M., Central Government and the Localities: Hampshire 1649–1689 (Cambridge, 1987), ch. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Key, Newton E., “Comprehension and the Breakdown of Consensus in Restoration Herefordshire,” in Politics of Religion, pp. 191–215Google Scholar; Jonathan Barry, “The Politics of Religion in Restoration Bristol,” in ibid., pp. 163–89; Rosenheim, James M., “Party Organization at the Local Level: The Norfolk Sheriffs Subscription of 1676,” Historical Journal 29 (1986): 713–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 The best published county study is Coleby, Hampshire. Also useful is Roberts, S. K., Recovery and Restoration in an English County: Devon Local Administration, 1646–1670 (Exeter, 1985)Google Scholar, although it is not readily available in the United States. More accessible, therefore, are Roberts's, articles: “Initiative and Control: The Devon Quarter Sessions Grand Jury, 1649–1670,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 57 (1984): 165–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar and “Public or Private? Revenge and Recovery at the Restoration of Charles II,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 59 (1986): 172–88CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. For a corporation, see Gauci, Perry, Politics and Society in Great Yarmouth 1660–1722 (Oxford, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Michael Mullett has produced a slew of excellent local case studies in article form, although some appear in obscure publications not always held by libraries in North America. See in particular “The Politics of Liverpool, 1660–88,” Transactions of the Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire 124 (1973): 31–56Google Scholar; “The Internal Politics of Bedford, 1660–1688,” The Bedfordshire Historical Record Society 59 (1980): 1–42Google Scholar; “Conflict, Politics and Elections in Lancashire, 1660–1688,” Northern History 19 (1983): 61–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “‘Men of Knowne Loyalty’: The Politics of the Lancashire Borough of Clitheroe, 1660–1689,” Northern History, 21 (1985): 108–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar. An excellent county study for Wales that contains invaluable material for the years between the Restoration and the Glorious Revolution is Jenkins, Philip, The Making of a Ruling Class; The Glamorgan Gentry 1640–1790 (Cambridge, 1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Dissertations particularly worthy of note (excluding those that focus exclusively on the 1680s) are: Davies, Evan, “The Enforcement of Religious Uniformity in England, 1668–1700, with Special Reference to the Dioceses of Chichester and Worcester” (University of Oxford, 1985)Google Scholar; Galitz, Todd M., “The Challenge of Stability: Religion, Politics, and Social Order in Worcestershire, 1660–1720” (Brown University, 1997)Google Scholar; Jackson, P. W., “Nonconformists and Society in Devon, 1660–1689” (University of Exeter, 1986)Google Scholar; Key, Newton E., “Politics Beyond Parliament: Unity and Party in the Herefordshire Region during the Restoration Period” (Cornell University, 1989)Google Scholar; Norrey, P. J., “The Relationship Between Central Government and Local Government in Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire 1660–1688” (University of Bristol, 1988)Google Scholar; Spaeth, Donald A., “Parson and Parishioners: Lay-Clerical Conflict and Popular Piety in Wiltshire Villages, 1660–1740” (Brown University, 1985)Google Scholar.

29 Spurr, John, The Restoration Church of England, 1646–1689 (New Haven, 1991)Google Scholar.

30 Spurr, John, “‘Latitudinarianism’ and the Restoration Church,” HistohcalJournal 31 (1988): 61–82Google Scholar.

31 Spellman, W. M., The Latitudinarians and the Church of England, 1660–1700 (Athens, Ga., 1993)Google Scholar. See also Reedy, Gerard S. J., The Bible and Reason: Anglicans and Scripture in late Seventeenth-Century England (Philadelphia, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Champion, J. A. I., The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and its Enemies, 1660–1730 (Cambridge, 1992)Google Scholar. See also Goldie, Mark, “Priestcraft and the Birth of Whiggism,” in Political Discourse in Early Modern Britain, eds. Phillipson, N. and Skinner, Q. (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 209–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Insight into how one prominent lay Puritan (of sorts) adjusted to the changed political climate of the Restoration is provided in Cromartie, Hale, part II.

34 Whiteman, Anne, ed., The Compton Census of 1676: A Critical Edition (London, 1986)Google Scholar.

35 Jones, , Charles I, p. 1Google Scholar. An emphasis on discontinuity looks like it is being revived with a vengeance. The question of what was new about the Restoration was the theme of a lively conference organized by Alan Houston and Steven Pincus at the Huntington Library in November 1996, under the title of A Nation Transformed? Its proceedings are to be published shortly.

36 Pincus, Steven C. A., “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffeehouses and Restoration Political Culture,” Journal of Modern History 67 (1995): 807–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 [Earl of Rochester], “A Satire on Charles II,” in To Settle the Succession of the Stale: Literature and Politics, 1678–1750, Downie, J. A. (Basingstoke, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Weil, Rachel, “Sometimes a Scepter is Only a Scepter: Pornography and Politics in Restoration England,” in The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of Modernity, 1500–1800, ed. Hunt, Lynn (New York, 1993)Google Scholar. On this theme, see also Weber, Harold, “The Monarch's Profane Body: ‘His Sceptre and His Prick Are of a Length,’” in his Paper Bullets: Print and Kingship under Charles II (Lexington, Ky., 1996), pp. 88–127Google Scholar.

39 Pincus, Steven C. A., Protestantism and Patriotism: Ideologies and the Making of English Foreign Policy, 1650–1668 (Cambridge, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Pincus, Steven C. A., “From Butterboxes to Wooden Shoes: The Shift in English Popular Sentiment from Anti-Dutch to Anti-French in the 1670s,” Historical Journal 38 (1995): 333–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Republicanism, Absolutism and Universal Monarchy: English Popular Sentiment during the Third Dutch War,” in Culture and Society in the Stuart Restoration, ed. MacLean, Gerald (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 241–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The English Debate over Universal Monarchy,” in A Union for Empire: Political Thought and the British Union of 1707, ed. Robertson, John (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 37–62Google Scholar.

41 Jones, J. R., The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century (London, 1996)Google Scholar appears thin in comparison, but has more to say about the logistics and strategy of naval warfare.

42 See, for example, Mercurius Reformatus, no. 29, 25 June 1690; O'Kelly, Charles, Macariae Excidium, ed. O'Callaghan, J. C. (Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin, 1853), pp. 170–71 (n7)Google Scholar.

43 I am grateful for discussions with Blair Worden and Peter Lake on this point.

44 Scott, , Algernon Sidney and the Restoration Crisis, p. 6Google Scholar.

45 Hutton, , Charles II, p. 357Google Scholar.

46 Scott, Algernon Sidney and the Restoration Crisis, part one; Scott, “England's Troubles.”

47 Knights, Mark, Politics and Opinion in Crisis, 1678–81 (Cambridge, 1994)Google Scholar.

48 For a fuller understanding of how parliamentary elections worked in Restoration England one needs to supplement Knights with Kishlansky, Mark, Parliamentary Selection: Social and Political Change in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, which not only provides the broader seventeenth-century perspective, but also offers a more satisfactory account of many of the elections that Knights discusses.

49 See in particular my London Crowds, chs. 5–7; Politics under the Later Stuarts, chs. 3, 4; “Party Turns? Or, Whigs and Tories Get Off Scott Free,” and “Sobering Thoughts, But the Party is Not Yet Over: A Reply,” Albion 25 (Fall, 1993): 581-90, 645–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Scott, , Sidney and the Restoration Crisis, p. 49Google Scholar.

51 Sir Robert Filmer: Patriarcha and Other Writings, ed. Sommerville, Johann P. (Cambridge, 1991)Google Scholar; John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Laslett, Peter (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar; Locke, John, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. Goldie, Mark (London, 1993)Google Scholar; Sidney, Algernon, Discourses Concerning Government, ed. West, Thomas G. (Liberty Fund, 1990)Google Scholar; Sidney: Court Maxims, ed. Blom, Hans, Haitsma-Muller, Eco, and Janse, Ronald (Cambridge, 1996)Google Scholar.

52 In addition to Ashcraft's monograph, see also his series of useful articles: “Revolutionary Politics and Locke's Two Treatises of Government: Radicalism and Lockean Political Theory,” Political Theory 8 (1980): 429–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The Two Treatises and the Exclusion Crisis: The Problem of Lockean Political Theory as Bourgeois Ideology,” Papers Read at the Clark Library Seminar, 10 December 1977 (Los Angeles, 1980)Google Scholar; “John Locke, Religious Dissent, and the Origins of Liberalism,” in Restoration, Ideology, and Revolution, ed. Schochet, Gordon (The Folger Institute Center for the History of Political Thought Proceedings, Vol. 4, 1990): 149–67Google Scholar; “The Radical Dimensions of Locke's Political Thought: A Dialogic Essay on Some Problems of Interpretation,” History of Political Thought 13 (1992): 703–72Google Scholar. See also his more general study, Locke's Two Treatises of Government (London, 1987)Google Scholar.

53 For Locke's concerns about Restoration Anglicanism, one must also read Goldie, Mark, “John Locke and Anglican Royalism,” Political Studies 31 (1983): 61–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar, reprinted in John Locke: Critical Assessments, 4 vols., ed. Ashcraft, Richard (London, 1991), 1: 151–80Google Scholar.

54 For the Restoration press in general, see Sutherland, James, The Restoration Newspaper and its Development (Cambridge, 1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Two valuable unpublished dissertations are: Smith, Timothy, “Francis Smith and the Opposition Press in England, 1660–1688” (University of Cambridge, 1977)Google Scholar; Hetet, John S. T., “A Literary Underground in Restoration England: Printers and Dissenters in the Context of Constraints” (University of Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar. Sommerville, C. John, The News Revolution in England: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information (Oxford, 1996)Google Scholar, which covers the century as a whole, is somewhat disappointing on the Restoration.

55 It should be emphasized that a belief in royal absolutism and a commitment to the rule of law were not necessarily antithetical. Absolute monarchs were supposed to rule in accordance with the law.

56 In a literal sense, this charge was accurate. For the argument that Calvinist resistance theory owed little to Calvinism and much to Catholic intellectual traditions—Conciliarist and Jesuit—see Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1978)Google Scholar.

57 Here I am summarizing largely my own views, but only to the extent that I believe they reflect the emerging historiographical consensus. See my London Crowds, chs. 5–7: Politics under the Later Stuarts, ch. 4; “Tories and the Rule of Law in the Reign of Charles II,” Seventeenth Century 8 (1993): 9–27Google Scholar; “The Parties and the People: The Press, the Crowd and Politics ‘Out-of-Doors’ in Restoration England,” in Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II, pp. 125–51Google Scholar. For the petitioning movements of the Exclusion era, one should also consult Knights, Politics and Opinion, chs. 8–10, and his various articles: “Petitioning and Political Theorists: John Locke, Algernon Sidney and London's ‘Monster’ Petition of 1680,” Past and Present 138 (1993): 94–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “London's ‘Monster’ Petition of 1680,” Historical Journal 36 (1993): 39–67Google Scholar; “London Petitions and Parliamentary Politics in 1679,” Parliamentary History 12 (1993): 29–46Google Scholar. A useful assessment of the significance of public opinion is provided by Miller, John, “Public Opinion in Charles II's England,” History 80 (1995): 359–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an insightful local case study, see Beaver, Dan, “Conscience and Context: The Popish Plot and the Politics of Ritual, 1678–1682,” Historical Journal 34 (1991): 297–327CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Some of the best work on the ideological conflicts of the late 1670s and 1680s has been done by Mark Goldie in a series of highly penetrating articles. In addition to the pieces singled out for specific citation above and below, see in particular: “Danby, the Bishops and the Whigs,” in Politics of Religion, pp. 75–105; “Sir Peter Pett, Sceptical Toryism and the Science of Toleration in the 1680s,” in Persecution and Toleration, pp. 247–73; “The Huguenot Experience and the Problem of Toleration in Restoration England,” in The Huguenots and Ireland, eds. Caldicott, C. E. J., Gough, H., and Pittion, J. P. (Dublin, 1987), pp. 175–203Google Scholar; “Restoration Political Thought,” in Reigns of Charles II and James II and VII, pp. 12–35. We eagerly await the publication of Goldie's long-promised monograph, Tory Ideology: Politics, Religion and Ideas in Restoration England (Cambridge, forthcoming). For an excellent discussion of the place of Sir Robert Filmer in Restoration royalist thought, see Houston, Sidney, ch. 2. For an important earlier study that shows how both sides appealed to the law in constitutional debate and that argues that the real struggle was not so much over whether the rule of law would triumph, but who would control the law (king or Parliament), see Nenner, Howard, By Colour of Law: Legal Culture and Constitutional Politics in England, 1660–1689 (Chicago, 1977)Google Scholar.

58 For the corporations, see the following unpublished dissertations: Pickavance, R. G., “The English Boroughs and the King's Government: A Study of the Tory Reaction of 1681–85” (University of Oxford, 1976)Google Scholar; Sinner, R. J., “Charles II and Local Government: The Quo Warranto Proceedings, 1681–1685” (Rutgers University, 1976)Google Scholar; Halliday, Paul D., “Partisan Conflict and the Law in the English Borough Corporation 1660–1727” (University of Chicago, 1993)Google Scholar, which is due to be published in revised form by Cambridge University Press. A dissertation on the plight of nonconformists under James II is Marshall, P. N., “Protestant Dissent in England in the Reign of James II” (University of Hull, 1976)Google Scholar. For the decade as a whole, see Margaret Child, Smillie, “Prelude to Revolution: The Structure of Politics in County Durhan, 1678–88” (University of Maryland, 1972)Google Scholar. For the most useful recent work in print on these themes, see Miller, John, “The Crown and the Borough Charters in the Reign of Charles II,” English Historical Review 100 (1985): 53–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coleby, Hamp-shire, part III; Harris, Tim, “Was the Tory Reaction Popular? Attitudes of Londoners towards the Persecution of Dissent, 1681—6,” London Journal 13 (1988): 106–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lee, Colin, “‘Fanatic Magistrates’: Religious and Political Conflict in Three Kent Boroughs,” Historical Journal 35 (1992): 43–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldie, Mark, “James II and the Dissenters' Revenge: The Commission of Enquiry of 1688,” Historical Research 66 (1992): 53–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldie, Mark, “John Locke's Circle and James II,” Historical Journal 35 (1992): 557–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldie, Mark and Spurr, John, “Politics and the Restoration Parish: Edward Fowler and the Struggle for St. Giles Cripplegate,” English Historical Review 109 (1994): 572–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mark Knights, “Revising the ‘Church-State’ of Restoration England: The Impact and Ideology of James II's Declarations of Indulgence,” in Nation Transformed?

59 Brown, Mark N., The Works of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1989), 1: 178–249Google Scholar.

60 There was a time when only the Huntington Library Quarterly (HLQ) seemed interested in Trimmers. See Benson, D. R., “Halifax and the Trimmers,” HLQ 27 (1963–1964): 115–64Google Scholar; Faulkner, T. C., “Halifax's The Character of a Trimmer and L'Estrange's attack on Trimmers in The Observator” HLQ 37 (1973–1974): 71–81Google Scholar; Brown, Mark N., “Trimmers and Moderates in the Reign of Charles II,” HLQ 37 (1973–1974): 311–36Google Scholar; Roper, A., “Dryden, Sunderland, and the Metamorphoses of a Trimmer,” HLQ 54 (1991): 43–72Google Scholar. For the renewed scholarly interest, see Smith, David L., Constitutional Royalism and the Search for Settlement, c. 1640–1649 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 319–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldie and Spurr, “Politics and the Restoration Parish”; Pincus, Steven C. A., “Shadwell's Dramatic Trimming,” in Religion, Literature and Politics in Post-Reformation England, pp 253—74Google Scholar.

61 Roger L'Estrange, The Observator, no. 240, 13 November 1682.

62 Ibid., no. 242, 16 November 1682.

63 Ibid., no. 240, 13 November 1682.

64 Ibid., no. 264, 27 December 1682.

65 Holdsworth, W. S., A History of English Law, 17 vols. (London, 1922–1972), 6: 509Google Scholar.

66 North, Roger, Lives of the Norths, 7 vols. (London, 1826), 2: 101–02Google Scholar.

67 Character of a Church-Trimmer (London, 1683)Google Scholar.

68 An Account of the Design of the Late Narrative, Entituled, The Dissenters New Plot [London, 1690]Google Scholar.

69 Cited in Harth, Phillip, Pen for a Party: Dryden's Tory Propaganda in Its Contexts (Princeton, 1993), p. 210Google Scholar.

70 Adee, Nicholas, A Plot for the Crown, In a Visitation-Sermon, At Cricklade, May the Fifteenth, 1682. Being a Parallel between the Heir and Husband-men in the Parable, and the Rightful Prince, and his Excluders in Parliament (London, 1685), p. 16Google Scholar.

71 Harris, “Was the Tory Reaction Popular?”; Goldie and Spurr, “Politics and the Restoration Parish”; Spurr, “‘Latitudinarianism’ and the Restoration Church.”

72 In London Crowds I made extensive use of the political poems of the period. Researchers should not rely on the published edition of Poems on Affairs of State by Yale University Press, because the editors made the unfortunate decision to include only those poems with some claim to literary merit; many of the most interesting poems, from a political point of view, were thereby excluded, for which we have to go back to the original manuscript collections (many of them are in the British Library, the Bodleian, and the Huntington).

73 Owen, Susan, Restoration Theatre and Crisis (Oxford, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the politics of the theater during the Exclusion Crisis, see also Owen, Susan J., “Interpreting the Politics of Restoration Drama,” The Seventeenth Century 8 (1993): 67–97Google Scholar; Maguire, Nancy Klein, “Nahum Tate's King Lear. ‘The King's Blest Restoration,’” in The Appropriation of Shakespeare: Post-Renaissance Reconstructions of the Work and the Myth, ed. Marsden, Jean I. (London, 1991), pp. 29–42Google Scholar. Other important literary works for the Restoration period include: Braverman, Richard, Plots and Counterplots: Sexual Politics and the Body Politic in English Literature, 1660–1730 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar; Maguire, Nancy Klein, Regicide and Restoration: English Tragicomedy, 1660–1671 (Cambridge, 1992)Google Scholar, and the relevant essays in Culture and Society in the Stuart Restoration and Religion, Literature and Politics.

74 Zwicker, Steven N., Lines of Authority: Politics and English Literary Culture, 1649–1689 (Ithaca, 1993)Google Scholar. See also his Politics and Language in Dryden's Poetry: The Arts of Disguise (Princeton, 1984) and (with Derek Hirst)Google Scholar, “Rhetoric and Disguise: Political Language and Political Argument in Absolam and Achitophel,” Journal of British Studies 21 (1981): 39–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Andrew Marvell, see Stacker, Margarita, Apocalyptic Marvell: The Second Coming in Seventeenth-Century Poetry (Athens, Ohio, 1986)Google Scholar.

75 The most important are (listed chronologically): Speck, W. A., Reluctant Revolutionaries: Englishmen and the Revolution of 1688 (Oxford, 1988)Google Scholar; Cruickshanks, Eveline, ed., By Force or By Default? The Revolution of 1688–1689 (Edinburgh, 1989)Google Scholar; Beddard, Robert A., ed., The Revolutions of 1688: The Andrew Browning Lectures of 1688 (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar; Ole Peter Grell, Jonathan I. Israel, and Tyacke, Nicholas, eds., From Persecution to Toleration: The Glorious Revolution and Religion in England (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar; Israel, Jonathan I., ed., The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the Glorious Revolution and its World Impact (Cambridge, 1991)Google Scholar; Jones, J. R., ed., Liberty Secured? Britain Before and After 1688 (Stanford, 1992)Google Scholar; Schwoerer, Lois G., ed., The Revolution of 1688-1689: Changing Perspectives (Cambridge, 1992)Google Scholar; Hoak, Dale and Feingold, Mordechai, eds., The World of William and Mary: Anglo-Dutch Perspectives on the Revolution of 1688–89 (Stanford, 1996)Google Scholar. We also have a new full-length study of the succession issue in seventeenth-century England that further enhances our understanding of the Glorious Revolution, in Howard Nenner's The Right to be King: The Succession to the Crown of England, 1603–1714 (Chapel Hill, 1995)Google Scholar.

76 Black, Jeremy, A System of Ambition? British Foreign Policy 1660–1793 (London, 1991), p. 135Google Scholar.

77 Israel, , “General Introduction” to his Anglo-Dutch Moment, p. 5Google Scholar.

78 See Israel, Jonathan I., “The Dutch Role in the Glorious Revolution,” in Anglo-Dutch-Moment, pp. 105–62Google Scholar; Groenveld, Simon, “‘Jéquippe une flotte très considérable’: The Dutch Side of the Glorious Revolution,” in Revolutions of 1688, pp. 213–45Google Scholar; John Stoye, “Europe and the Revolutions of 1688,” in ibid., pp. 191–212; Haley, K. H. D., “The Dutch, the Invasion of England, and the Alliance of 1689,” in Revolution of 1688–1689, pp. 21–34Google Scholar; John C. Rule, “France Caught between Two Balances: The Dilemma of 1688,” in ibid., pp. 35–51; Pincus, “The English Debate over Universal Monarchy.”

79 Goldie, Mark, “The Political Thought of the Anglican Revolution,” in Revolutions of 1688, pp. 102–36Google Scholar.

80 For the armed forces roles in the revolution, see Childs, John, The Army, James II and the Glorious Revolution (London, 1980)Google Scholar and Davies, J. D., Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), ch. 11Google Scholar. The lieutenancy's response is discussed in Stater, Noble Government, ch. 6. For popular responses, see Harris, “London Crowds and the Revolution of 1688,” in By Force or By Default?, pp. 44–64; Gary S. De Krey, “Revolution Redivivus: 1688–1689 and the Radical Tradition in Seventeenth-Century London Politics,” in Revolution of 1688-1689, pp. 198–217.

81 Beddard, , “The Unexpected Whig Revolution of 1688,” in his Revolutions of 1688, pp. 11–101Google Scholar. See also his “The Dynastic Revolution of 1688,” which constitutes the introduction to his Kingdom Without a King: The Journal of the Provisional Government in the Revolution of 1688 (Oxford, 1988), pp. 9–65Google Scholar.

82 Beddard, , “Unexpected Whig Revolution,” p. 97Google Scholar.

83 Beddard, , “Dynastic Revolution,” p. 11Google Scholar.

84 For this argument, see Pincus, “The English Debate over Universal Monarchy.” Cf. [King, William], The State of the Protestants of Ireland Under the Late King James's Government (London, 1691), pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

85 Schwoerer, Declaration of Rights. Schwoerer has offered a restatement of her position without seeing the need to make any qualifications in the light of recent research in her “The Bill of Rights, 1689, Revisited,” in The World of William and Mary, pp. 42–58.

86 Speck, , Reluctant Revolutionaries, p. 141Google Scholar.

87 Goldie, Mark, “The Roots of True Whiggism, 1688–94,” History of Political Thought 1 (1980): 195–236Google Scholar.

88 Miller, John, “Crown, Parliament, and People,” in Liberty Secured?, pp. 81–83Google Scholar.

89 See Carter, Jennifer, “The Revolution and the Constitution,” in Britain After the Glorious Revolution, ed. Holmes, G. S. (London, 1969), pp. 39–58Google Scholar.

90 Various of the essays cited in note 72 above deal with these questions. In addition, see Brewer, John, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783 (London, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pincus, Steven C. A., The Glorious Revolution and the Origins of Liberalism (Cambridge, forthcoming)Google Scholar.

91 I am currently writing such a book under the title British Revolutions: The Emergence of the Modern State, 1660–1707 (Penguin, forthcoming).

92 See Harris, Tim, “The British Dimension and the Shaping of Political Identities during the Reign of Charles II,” in Chosen Peoples? Protestantism and National Identity, c. 1650–c. 1850, eds. Claydon, Tony and McBride, Ian (Cambridge, forthcoming)Google Scholar.

93 Cowan, Ian B., “The Reluctant Revolutionaries: Scotland in 1688,” in By Force or By Default?, p. 65Google Scholar; Donaldson, Gordon, Scotland: James V to James VII (Edinburgh, 1965), p. 383Google Scholar; Mitchison, Rosalind, Lordship to Patronage: Scotland 1603–1745 (London, 1983), p. 116Google Scholar.

94 Harris, Tim, “Reluctant Revolutionaries? The Scots and the Revolution of 1688–9,” in Politics and the Political Imagination in Later Stuart Britain, ed. Nenner, Howard (Rochester, N.Y., forth-coming)Google Scholar.

95 For a work that points to the value of pursuing a three-kingdoms approach into the late seventeenth century, see Ohlmeyer, Jane H., Civil War and the Restoration in the Three Stuart Kingdoms: The Career of Randal MacDonell, Marquis of Antrim, 1609–1683 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar. A superb general discussion is Barnard, Toby, “Scotland and Ireland in the later Stewart Monarchy,” in Conquest and Union: Fashioning a British State, 1485–1725, eds. Ellis, Steven G. and Barber, Sarah (London, 1995), pp. 250–75Google Scholar. Brown's, Keith M., Kingdom or Province? Scotland and the Regal Union, 1603–1715 (London, 1992)Google Scholar is an excellent survey that contains a useful bibliography. Goldie's, Mark “Divergence and Union: Scotland and England, 1660–1707,” in The British Problem, c. 1534–1707, eds. Bradshaw, Brendan and Morrill, John (Basingstoke, 1996), pp. 220–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar, has much to say about the logic of writing British history for the late seventeenth century, although it focuses on the period after 1689. For essays on Scotland and Ireland in the recent collections on the Glorious Revolution, see Cowan, , “Reluctant Revolutionaries,” in By Force or By Default?, pp. 65–81Google Scholar; Bruce P. Lenman, “The Scottish Nobility and the Revolution of 1688-1690,” and Kelly, Patrick, “Ireland and the Glorious Revolution: From Kingdom to Colony,” in Revolutions of 1688, pp. 137–62, 163–90Google Scholar; Ian B. Cowan, “Church and State Reformed? The Revolution of 1688-9 in Scotland,” and Hayton, D. W., “The Williamite Revolution in Ireland, 1688–91” in Anglo-Dutch Moment, pp. 163–83, 185–213Google Scholar; Karl S. Bottigheimer “The Glorious Revolution in Ireland,” and Lenman, Bruce P., “The Poverty of Political Theory in the Scottish Revolution of 1688–1690,” in Revolution of 1688–1689, pp. 234–43, 244–59Google Scholar. Two recent books dealing with nonconformists in Ireland are Kilroy, Phil, Protestant Dissent and Controversy in Ireland, 1660–1714 (Cork, 1996)Google Scholar; Greaves, Richard L., God's Other Children: Protestant Nonconformists and the Emergence of Denominational Churches in Ireland, 1660–1700 (Stanford, 1997)Google Scholar.