The experiences of maturing and ageing constitute a rather unexplored field within Gerontology. The ‘inner’ aspects of ageing have been left relatively untouched by researchers, largely out of methodological considerations. The ‘outer’ aspect of ageing, or ageing defined as behaviour, has been considered more fruitful due to its consistency with criteria for science created by logical positivism. Psychogerontologists in particular have been mesmerized by this research paradigm. However, this trend has also, for some time now, been criticized for underestimating the perceptions of the reality upon which we form our reasons for action (Runyan 1982; Carr 1986). Further, there are exceptions to this main stream of research. For example, the German psychogerontologist Thomae created a theory of ageing in 1970 based on the perceptual, evaluative and meaning – giving processes within the individual (Thomae 1970). In a series of studies (The BOLSA studies), he has been able to lend support to most of his theoretical claims (see Kruse and Schmitz-Schertzer 1995). Also the Canadian gerontologists Reker and Wong (1988) belong to the group of pioneers advocating the importance of personal meaning in successful ageing.

People with learning difficulties are now surviving into old age and more and more of them are being resettled from long-stay hospitals. The main purpose of this article is to examine some of the key barriers facing, and dilemmas involved in, the provision of community-based services to this newly emerging user group. The findings of some recent field research on older people with learning difficulties who have been resettled into the community are used to illustrate the challenges facing service providers. Particular reference is made to the impact of age discrimination and traditional differences between service specialisms. The article shows that both official definitions of need in old age and the aspirations of the service responses to those needs have been artificially constructed in very narrow terms, especially when compared with the principled approach to service provision for younger people with learning difficulties. In conclusion, therefore, it is argued that the principles underpinning services for people with learning difficulties, such as normalisation, should be applied to older people as well.

This paper attempts to study the socioeconomic and demographic profile of the elderly population at a micro level based on data collected in a sample survey, entitled ‘Ageing and health conditions in rural areas - a sample survey 1990’, conducted in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, India. The distribution of the elderly population according to their work status, health problems and needs is also discussed. The views and actions of the younger family members toward the elderly members are examined and found to vary according to caste group, sex, and work status of the latter. It is noted that elderly females are usually relatively more dependent on their families than their male counterparts. The behaviour of the family members towards their elders is also significantly affected by the literacy and income levels of family members. Provision for an old-age pension is strongly recommended.

A description of the social construction of dementia among elderly residents of a nursing ward is offered, based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in an Israeli geriatric centre. This account focuses on the construction of positive social identities and the ascription of roles for residents labelled as ‘demented’. The findings illustrate the split between personal and social identity in dementia. The applicability of conventional socio-psychological constructs such as ‘I’ and ‘me’ regarding dementia is questioned, as the spoken manifestations of these constructs is critically examined from a symbolic interactionist perspective.

As increasingly more people experience old age as a time of growth and productivity, theoretical attention to successful ageing is needed. In this paper, we overview historical, societal and philosophical evidence for a deep, long-standing ambivalence about human ageing that has influenced even scientific views of old age. In recent years, however, discussion of the psychological and behavioural processes people use to maintain and reach new goals in late life has gained momentum. We contribute to this discussion the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation, developed by Baltes and Baltes. The model is a metamodel that attempts to represent scientific knowledge about the nature of development and ageing with the focus on successful adaptation. The model takes gains and losses jointly into account, pays attention to the great heterogeneity in ageing and successful ageing, and views successful mastery of goals in the face of losses endemic to advanced age as the result of the interplay of the three processes, selection, compensation, and optimisation. We review evidence from the biological and social science literatures for each component and discuss new research avenues to study the interaction of the three processes.

This paper reports on the analysis of data collected in a study looking at older people moving into nursing and residential homes. Using life history methodology, participants are interviewed before and after arrival at homes in order to determine the process of adapting to their new environment. Initial data analysis indicates that this process requires extensive social activity on the part of the new resident, involving negotiation of complex social conventions. The discussion focuses on two themes which have been identified from the data: constructing familiarity whereby participants use sometimes tenuous knowledge of people and places to make the home seem less strange, and managing the self, whereby familiarity is used as a means of permitting social conversation to take place without leaving residents open to the dangers of being intrusive. These two themes have relevance for the way in which new residents can be introduced to homes, and the way in which the social skills of older people are viewed.

The increasing use of biographical materials in research and intervention in the field of ageing gives rise to significant ethical issues. In this inquiry, four of these issues are explicated. First, the notion of informed consent is explored in relation to selected contexts of research and intervention in ageing and biography. Second, the issues of autonomy and competence are considered from the point of view of identifying contexts where biography is a prerequisite for ethically responsive action. The third ethical issue concerns respecting the groundrules of various biographical approaches. Finally, the notions of authenticity and truth in lifestories are explored in an attempt to clarify the limitations and expectations of ageing and biography. The discussion of these ethical issues proceeds on the basis of an argument that indicates the fundamental importance of biographical ageing or the stories we are.

The present study set out to identify how the experience of being old in Hong Kong is represented through images commonly recurring in the print media. A case is presented for how the media not only reflect social images and views on ageing, but actively participate in the social construction of views about being old. Two newspapers in Hong Kong, the South China Morning Post (English medium) and the Sin Tao (Chinese medium), were surveyed and contents of stories depicting old age were analyzed, using a qualitative and quantitative methodological design. Dominant amongst the themes was vulnerability in old age. Newspapers used stories according to journalistic formulae to present both negative and positive depictions of old age; however, positive stories carried a sense of the exceptional rather than ordinary life. Results were analysed through a comparison between the two Hong Kong newspapers as well as a comparison with a similar study undertaken on the Australian print media.

This article explores a range of issues relating to financial management and elderly people with dementia. The law relating to personal finances for those who lack capacity is outlined and discussed with a stress upon its complexity and the key gaps in present coverage. The article goes on to outline findings from research on these issues carried out within a social services authority in the north of England. Professionals were found to have a wide range of anxieties relating to what they felt was the financial abuse of their elderly clients with dementia, as well as more general concern about how best to deal with financial issues for this group on a day to day basis. The financial abuse of elderly people does occur, but the article concludes by arguing that the issues raised by the research are wider for three main reasons. First, relatives and professionals are often ignorant or confused by the options available to them rather than being intent on defrauding elderly people. Second, the desire to hand down and to receive money from the one generation to the next is a powerful force in society and elderly people with dementia may wish their children rather than the state to have their money. And third, fee assessment and collection for this group raise real practical challenges to social services.

Critical concern with infantilisation practices—i.e. the tendency to treat older people as if they are dependent children—has for the most part concentrated on the negative associations between infantilisation and dependency in later life. Infantilisation is usually defined as an unwelcome imposition on older men and women who are often portrayed as relatively powerless to resist. Whilst the negative consequences of enforced infantilisation must not be ignored there are also occasions when infantilisation may be regarded as a voluntary or chosen mode of resistance on the part of older people to the decrements and external impositions of later life. The concept of infantilisation may therefore be enlarged to include modes of resistance involving processes of mutual identification of the old with the young; in certain instances even as a form of conspiracy between these two age groups against the wider society. This paper therefore pursues fictional images of such rapport as they occur in a selection of the ‘William’ stories written by Richmal Crompton during the period from 1919 up to her death in 1969, and with an appeal which continues up to the present day. The argument is that these stories of alliances between boyhood and ‘elders’ may be regarded as vivid examples (a repository of positive images) of what may be described as ‘positive infantilisation’: that is to say, of consciousness of the independence of subjective selfhood from the ageing body in the face of the misperceptions and misleading stereotypes of the ‘mature’ adult world.

Many changes in familial factors under the influence of modernisation have limited the Korean family's function or capability to support and care for elderly members, and are contributing to the problems of ageing. Ageing as a social problem is a new concern in Korea which has never been experienced before, and a new challenge to the family and the state. It requires the state's responsibility to support elderly people and to strengthen the family in its care function by utilising services provided by non-familial persons. The problems of ageing may be categorised into four types: (1) poverty and economic dependence (2) difficulties in health care (3) absence or ambiguity of appropriate roles within the family (4) psychological conflicts and feelings of alienation. Present social welfare provisions are far from sufficient to respond to ageing in Korean society. Problems associated with current policies are discussed and recommendations for future development are made. Ways of promoting the traditional value of filial piety, which has acted as a barrier to the development of social welfare policy for elderly people in Korea, are suggested. For the value to be upheld and developed as one promoting welfare provision for elderly Koreans, the ways of practising the value could be reconstructed so that they may meet the needs of modern Korean life; practising filial piety at a societal level should be emphasised. The roles and responsibilities between the family and the state are also discussed.

This study aims to measure objectively and/or estimate the needs of impaired elderly persons and their families for social care services. The research was carried out in Maebashi, a medium size Japanese city. In our study, ‘impaired elderly persons’ included both physically and/or mentally impaired persons. In total, 693 impaired elderly persons and their families were classified according to 20 specific types of need: these ‘need types’ were cross-tabulated with two sets of factors: (1) Severity of impairments and (2) Difficulty of caregivers in providing the required care. A standard model of the service provision necessary for each ‘need type’ was established through group consultation with social care service professionals. Finally, the total amount of each service required in the city was calculated. Major findings are: (1) Our estimates indicate that 7.1 per cent of all persons 65 and over residing in Maebashi City were physically and/or mentally impaired to a certain degree. (2) Forty per cent of these elderly people were being cared for by caregivers who themselves had serious difficulties. (3) The demand for social care services in local Japanese cities is high. In order for this demand to be met a substantial expansion of both nursing home care and in-home care services is required.

Japan is the most rapidly ageing developed country in the world. Economic, political, and social changes will be necessary in the next 20 years as Japan attempts to adjust to the rapid ageing of its population. This paper examines survey responses by Japanese men and women regarding their attitudes toward the ageing of their country's population, concerns about the impact of anticipated demographic changes on their economic well-being in retirement, and preferences among alternative policy options for changes in the Japanese social security programme. Responses to a nationally representative survey, conducted by Mainichi Newspapers in 1992, were analysed. Key findings indicate that: (1) the Japanese are concerned about the impact of population ageing on their economic well-being in retirement, (2) most Japanese anticipate that earnings will be an important source of their retirement income, but they are worried about employment opportunities, (3) they favour increasing social security taxes instead of cutting retirement benefits, and (4) they favour raising the age of eligibility for social security benefits.

British research on exit from the labour market has been mainly concerned with men, but US research shows retirement for women is equally salient. Gender differences in attitudes to employment and reasons for early exit are relevant to employment and pension policy.

In this paper, we use data from the Social Change and Economic Life Initiative survey to examine gender differences in attitudes to employment among over 2,500 British women and men aged 40 to 59. A key concern was to discover whether the decline in mid-life women's employment through their fifties could be explained by a change in attitudes with age, or was more likely to be due to age-related barriers in the labour market.

Analysis shows that among mid-life people who were not employed, financial considerations were the predominant influence on men's job-seeking whereas for women psychosocial aspects of having a job were also important. Mid-life women showed no decline in their motivation towards employment with age, indicating that women's early exit cannot be explained by reduced desire for employment with age. However, there was evidence of perceived age barriers to employment or promotion which were likely to have affected behaviour and attitudes.

Older workers are often placed in an unenviable position in the face of stereotypes which define them as increasingly marginal in the work force, and view retirement in terms of status loss and disengagement. Yet voluntary early retirement schemes have been a recent feature of work organisations of all types in Britain, Western Europe and North America. The nature of the decision-making processes of those involved in such schemes has not been widely researched and such studies as have been conducted have not drawn on the existing framework of decision analysis. This paper reports the findings of two linked studies into the early retirement decisions of men working in Britain for a large multinational company in the manufacturing sector. The first investigated the factors deemed to be important for a group of men at the point of decision whilst the second investigated both the factors deemed to be important and the quality of life of a group of men who had taken the decision to retire early between 18 months and 3 years previously. Both studies indicated that the decision-making process is complex and cannot be reduced to single-factors like health or financial status. The most important factor in the quality of life of early retirees was the matching of expectations of further work at the point of decision. The studies illustrated the utility of a decision analysis approach to the study of early retirement.

In this article we present the results of a panel survey in which 242 men aged 40 to 55 were followed for approximately seven years after they became involuntarily unemployed. The study focused on reintegration probabilities of the older workers and on the question of their reaction to a situation of prolonged unemployment. The study shows that if policy is not changed, the probability of the reintegration of older, long-term unemployed persons into the labour force will remain extremely low. Re-entry via a ‘normally’ functioning labour market (formal application procedures and official job intermediaries) takes place almost exclusively during the first year after dismissal. If a new job is not found, a resigned feeling occurs among almost all of this older unemployed group. Most of the older people adjust to the new circumstances sooner or later. If one wishes to protect older persons from the trap of long-term unemployment (and in many cases total exclusion), more rapid interventions must be made, and reorientation and retraining efforts must be started sooner, before it is ‘too late’. From the employer’s point of view, there is not much interest in those who are still unemployed after one year.

The present investigation was based on the analysis of twenty respondents, ten men and ten women, all retired. The written texts were obtained from the archives of one of the authors who gathered autobiographies using a guided method of assigned topics of life. The main objective for this analysis was to find those central life goals and dominant activities around which the projects of life were formed. Sorting of life projects was done according to the constant comparison method described by Glaser and Strauss in their Grounded Theory model. Five types of life projects were identified in the narratives: living is achieving, living is being social, living is loving, living is family life, living is struggling. Considerable gender differences appeared in the findings with women showing a broader participation and interpretation of life where family life, community work and job careers were important. The men tended to be more monothematic focusing either on a personal achievement or a career development in a more social context. The rhetoric in the discourse of life themes was quite different between the sexes reflecting the sex role scripts of the cohort studied. Only in some of the types was the class dimension clearly visible where the type living is achieving and to a certain extent even living is being social reflected upper middle class and upper class occupations while living is loving reflected middle class occupations. The positive narrative tone and the telling of well-managed life projects and success stories in most of the accounts were considered as American features in comparison to some Finnish life stories that contained more of the telling of hardships. The most gender bound accounts such as the masculine living is achieving and the feminine living is loving life projects showed the greatest resemblances between these two western cultures revealing comparable master scripts.

Social constructionist approaches to the talk of older adults diagnosed as suffering from a dementing illness have emphasised the importance of analysing such talk in terms of its social function. Drawing on this work together with the increasing clinical impetus towards the development of psychotherapy in this area, this paper examines two sequences of stories produced during a psychotherapy group. These stories are seen as having two related functions: first, they enable individuals to explore the significance of their experiences and thus, it is argued, act as metaphors for the personal experience of having a dementing illness; and secondly they act as a means of creating a series of social identities. As such they serve as explanations of ‘what it is to lose one’s mind’ (Sutton 1994).

This paper seeks to identify specific problem behaviours related to the distress experienced by informal caregivers of dementia victims. Analyses are conducted using a random sample of caregivers rather than a restricted clinical sample. Distress is measured in terms of both depression and caregiver burden. The findings reveal that specific behaviours on the part of the care receiver are strong correlates of the distress experienced by caregivers. In particular, aimlessness, aggressive behaviours, forgetfulness, and restlessness are correlated with heightened feelings of burden. Apathy or a lack of interest in daily activities is strongly correlated with both feelings of burden and depression. The identification of specific problem behaviours suggests where efforts should be placed in order to alleviate the distress experienced by informal caregivers.