Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-p566r Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T14:36:30.794Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Integrating Older Survey Data into Modern Research Paradigms

Identifying and Correcting Spatial Error in “Legacy” Datasets

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 January 2017

Isaac I. T. Ullah*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University School of Human Evolution and Social Change, PO Box 2402, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402 (iullah@asu.edu)

Abstract

The data from older archaeological surveys are incredibly important resources, often containing our only information about sites that have been destroyed or that are now inaccessible. These surveys occurred before the advent of GPS technology, however, so their spatial accuracy is often uncertain. Many types of locational errors accumulate in such “legacy” datasets, so using them in modern GIS-based spatial analyses is frequently problematic. Many of the sources of error can be identified and quantified, however, and systematic and random errors (derived mainly from Cartesian, rounding, and human error) can largely be mitigated by scanning the original field maps, georectifying the maps to trusted imagery, and then digitizing sites directly. The remaining “mislocation” errors derive from difficulty identifying locations in the field. The original survey notes may contain clues about mislocation error, but it is impossible to mitigate these errors without re-recording site locations with more accurate survey instruments. Instead, I advocate the use of GIS-based models to estimate the influence of specific surveying practices on site location accuracy. These models can provide a standardized, quantifiable measure of mislocation error in a legacy dataset, which can help guide its use in modern GIS analyses that require accurate site locations.

Los datos de prospecciones arqueológicas antiguas son recursos de una enorme importancia, pues contienen a menudo la única información disponible sobre yacimientos que han sido destruidos, o que resultan inaccesibles en la actualidad. Sin embargo, estas prospecciones tuvieron lugar antes de la llegada de la tecnología GPS, por lo que su precisión espacial es a menudo incierta. Los tipos de errores de localización que se acumulan en este tipo de datos “heredados” son numerosos, por lo que su uso en análisis espaciales modernos basados en SIG es, con frecuencia, problemático. No obstante, muchas de las causas de estos errores pueden ser identificadas y cuantificadas y, tanto los errores sistemáticos como aleatorios (derivados principalmente del Cartesiano, el redondeo y los errores humanos), pueden ser mitigados en gran medida por medio del escaneo de los mapas de campo originales, su georrectificado a partir de imágenes de confianza, y la posterior digitalización de los sitios. Los restantes “errores de ubicación” tienen su origen en la dificultad a la hora de situar los puntos en el campo. Los diarios y anotaciones originales de las prospecciones pueden contener pistas sobre dichos errores de ubicación, pero resulta imposible mitigar su efecto sin volver a registrar las ubicaciones de los yacimientos con instrumentos más precisos. En su lugar, yo abogo por el uso de modelos basados en SIG para estimar la influencia de determinados métodos específicos de exploración en la precisión de la localización de los sitios. Estos modelos pueden proporcionar una medida estandarizada, cuantificable de los errores de ubicación en un conjunto de datos heredado, lo que puede ayudar a guiar su uso en los análisis modernos de SIG, que requieren ubicaciones exactas de los yacimientos.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Arıkan, Bülent 2009 Reorganization and Risk: Environmental Change and Tribal Land Use in Marginal Landscapes of Southern Jordan. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.Google Scholar
Arıkan, Bülent 2012 Don’t Abhor Your Neighbor for He Is a Pastoralist: The GIS-based Modeling of the Past Human–environment Interactions and Landscape Changes in the Wadi el-Hasa, West-central Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:29082920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Athanassopoulos, Effie F., and Wandsnider, LuAnn 2004 Mediterranean Archaeological Landscapes: Current Issues. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Atici, Levent, Kansa, Sarah Whitcher, Lev-Tov, Justin, and Kansa, Eric C. 2013 Other People’s Data: A Demonstration of the Imperative of Publishing Primary Data. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 20:663681.Google Scholar
Austin, Anne 2014 Mobilizing Archaeologists: Increasing the Quantity and Quality of Data Collected in the Field with Mobile Technology. Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology 2:1323.Google Scholar
Banning, Edward B. 1996 Highlands and Lowlands: Problems and Survey Frameworks for Rural Archaeology in the Near East. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 301:2545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Ullah, Isaac I., and Mitasova, Helena 2010 Computational Modeling and Neolithic Socioecological Dynamics: A Case Study from Southwest Asia. American Antiquity 75:364386.Google Scholar
Beale, Nicole 2012 How Community Archaeology Can Make Use of Open Data to Achieve Further Its Objectives. World Archaeology 44:612633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Anthony, and Neylon, Cameron 2012 A Vision for Open Archaeology. World Archaeology 44:479497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blades, Mark, and Spencer, Christopher 1987 Young Children’s Strategies When Using Maps with Landmarks. Journal of Environmental Psychology 7:201217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blades, Mark, and Spencer, Christopher 1990 The Development of Three- to Six-Year-Olds’ Map Using Ability: The Relative Importance of Landmarks and Map Alignment. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 151:181194.Google Scholar
Bray, Hiawatha 2014 You Are Here: From the Compass to GPS, the History and Future of How We Find Ourselves. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
Cascalheira, Joao, Goncalves, Celia, and Bicho, Nuno 2014 Smartphones and the Use of Customized Apps in Archaeological Projects. The SAA Archaeological Record 14(5):2025.Google Scholar
Chang, Kang-Tsung, Antes, James, and Lenzen, Thomas 1985 The Effect of Experience on Reading Topographic Relief Information: Analyses of Performance and Eye Movements. The Cartographic Journal 22:8894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christopherson, Gary L. 2003 Using ARC/GRID to Calculate Topographic Prominence in an Archaeological Landscape. Electronic document, http://www.casa.arizona.edu/MPP/topo_promo/, accessed July 30, 2015.Google Scholar
Clark, Geoffrey A., Neeley, Michael P., MacDonald, Burton, Schuldenrein, Joseph, and Amr, Khairieh 1992 Wadi al-Hasa Paleolithic Project-1992: Preliminary Report. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 36:1323.Google Scholar
Clark, Geoffrey A., Olszewski, Deborah I., Schuldenrien, Joseph, Rida, Nazmieh, and Eighmey, James D. 1994 Survey and Excavation in Wadi Al-Hasa: A Preliminary Report of the 1993 Field Season. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 38:4155.Google Scholar
Coinman, Nancy R. (editor) 1998 The Archaeology of the Wadi al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan, Volume 1: Surveys, Settlement Patterns and Paleoenvironments. Vol. 1. Anthropological Research Papers. Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Coinman, Nancy R. 2000 The Archaeology of the Wadi al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan, Vol. 2: Excavations at Middle, Upper, and Epipaleolithic Sites in the Hasa. Arizona State University Anthropological Research Papers 52. Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Compton, Robert R. 1985 Geology in the Field. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Drennan, Robert D., Hanks, Bryan K., Maguiña-Ugarte, Adriana, and Martín, Alexander J. 2014 Comparative Archaeology Database. University of Pittsburgh, Center for Comparative Archaeology. Electronic document, http://www.cadb.pitt.edu/, accessed May 19, 2015.Google Scholar
Ducke, Benjamin 2012 Natives of a Connected World: Free and Open Source Software in Archaeology. World Archaeology 44:571579.Google Scholar
Fitzjohn, Matthew 2007 Viewing Places: GIS Applications for Examining the Perception of Space in the Mountains of Sicily. World Archaeology 39(1):7083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galaty, Michael L., and Watkinson, Charles 2004 The Practice of Archaeology under Dictatorship. In Archaeology under Dictatorship, edited by Galaty, Michael L. and Watkinson, Charles, pp. 117. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Getty Conservation Institute 2015 Middle Eastern Geodatabase for Antiquities (MEGA), Jordan (20072014). Electronic document, http://www.megajordan.org, accessed May 19, 2015.Google Scholar
Gilhooly, Kenneth J., Wood, Michael, Kinnear, Paul R., and Green, Caroline 1988 Skill in Map Reading and Memory for Maps. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 40:87107.Google Scholar
Golledge, Reginald G. 1999 Wayfinding Behavior: Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes. JHU Press, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Goodale, Nathan, Bailey, David G., Fondak, Theodore, and Nauman, Alissa 2013 iTrowel: Mobile Devices as Transformative Technology in Archaeological Field Research. The SAA Archaeological Record 13(3):1822.Google Scholar
Goodchild, Michael F. 1993 Data Models and Data Quality: Problems and Prospects. In Environmental Modeling with GIS, edited by Goodchild, Michael F., Parks, Bradley O., and Steyaert, Louis T., pp. 94103. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Goodchild, Michael F., and Gopal, Sucharita 1989 The Accuracy of Spatial Databases. CRC Press, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodchild, Michael F., Guoqing, Sun, and Shiren, Yang 1992 Development and Test of an Error model for Categorical Data. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 6:87103.Google Scholar
GRASS Development Team 2015 Geographic Resources Analysis Support System. Electronic document, http://grass.osgeo.org, accessed May 19, 2015.Google Scholar
Graves McEwan, Dorothy 2012 Qualitative Landscape Theories and Archaeological Predictive Modelling—A Journey through No Man’s Land? Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 19:526547.Google Scholar
Haack, Barry, Bryant, Nevin, and Adams, Steven 1987 An Assessment of Landsat MSS and TM Data for Urban and Near-urban Land-Cover Digital Classification. Remote Sensing of Environment 21:201213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Trevor M. 2012 Interfacing Archaeology and the World of Citizen Sensors: Exploring the Impact of Neogeography and Volunteered Geographic Information on an Authenticated Archaeology. World Archaeology 44:580591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hegarty, Mary, Montello, Daniel R., Richardson, Anthony E., Ishikawa, Toru, and Lovelace, Kristin 2006 Spatial Abilities at Different Scales: Individual Differences in Aptitude-Test Performance and Spatial-Layout Learning. Intelligence 34:151176.Google Scholar
Hill, J. Brett 2002 Land Use and Land Abandonment: A Case Study from the Wadi Al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Hill, J. Brett 2004 Land Use and an Archaeological Perspective on Socio-Natural Studies in the Wadi Al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan. American Antiquity 69:389412.Google Scholar
Hill, J. Brett 2006 Human Ecology in the Wadi Al-Hasa: Land Use and Abandonment through the Holocene. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Holtorf, Cornelius J. 2001 Is the Past a Non-renewable Resource? In Destruction and Conservation of Cultural Property, edited by Layton, Robert, Stone, Peter G., and Thomas, Julian, pp. 286297. One World Archaeology. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Hunter, Gary J., and Goodchild, Michael F. 1995 Dealing with Error in a Spatial Database: A simple Case Study. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 61:529537.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, Toru, and Kastens, Kim A. 2005 Why Some Students Have Trouble with Maps and Other Spatial Representations. Journal of Geoscience Education 53:184.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, Toru, and Montello, Daniel R. 2006 Spatial Knowledge Acquisition from Direct Experience in the Environment: Individual Differences in the Development of Metric Knowledge and the Integration of Separately Learned Places. Cognitive Psychology 52:93129.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric C. 2010 Open Context in Context: Cyberinfrastructure and Distributed Approaches to Publish and Preserve Archaeological Data. The SAA Archaeological Record 10(5):1216.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric C. 2012 Openness and Archaeology’s Information Ecosystem. World Archaeology 44:498520.Google Scholar
Kintigh, Keith 2006 The Promise and Challenge of Archaeological Data Integration. American Antiquity 71:567578.Google Scholar
Kozlowski, Lynn T., and Bryant, Kendall J. 1977 Sense of Direction, Spatial Orientation, and Cognitive Maps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3:590598.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, Thegn N., Kirch, Patrick V., Gon III, Samuel M., Chadwick, Oliver A., Hartshorn, Anthony S., and Vitousek, Peter M. 2009 Opportunities and Constraints for Intensive Agriculture in the Hawaiian Archipelago Prior to European Contact. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:23742383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lake, Mark W., Woodman, Patricia E., and Mithen, Stephen J. 1998 Tailoring GIS Software for Archaeological Applications: An Example Concerning Viewshed Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:2738.Google Scholar
Liben, Lynn S., and Downs, Roger M. 1993 Understanding Person-Space-Map Relations: Cartographic and Developmental Perspectives. Developmental Psychology 29:739752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, Albert Yu-Min, Huynh, Andrew, Lanckriet, Gert, and Barrington, Luke 2014 Crowdsourcing the Unknown: The Satellite Search for Genghis Khan. PLoS ONE 9(12): e114046.Google Scholar
Llobera, Marcos 2001 Building Past Landscape Perception With GIS: Understanding Topographic Prominence. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:10051014.Google Scholar
Llobera, Marcos 2003 Extending GIS-Based Visual Analysis: The Concept of Visualscapes. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 17(1):2548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovallo, Matthew J., Vercauteren, Kurt C., Hedge, Naomi C., Anderson, Eric M., and Hygnstrom, Scott E. 1994 An Evaluation of Electronic versus Hand-Held Compasses for Telemetry Studies. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22:662667.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton 1982 The Wâdi el-Hasa Survey 1979 and Previous Archaeological Work in Southern Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 245:3552.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton 1988 The Wadi el Hasa Archaeological Survey 19791983, West-Central Jordan. Wilfrid Laurier University Press.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, and Amr, Khairieh 1992 The Southern Ghors and Northeast’Arabah Archaeological Survey. JR Collis, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, Banning, Edward B., and Pavlish, Larry A. 1980 The Wadi el Hasa Survey 1979: A Preliminary Report. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 24:169–83.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, Bradshaw, Andrew, Herr, Larry, Neeley, Michael, and Quaintance, Scott 2000 The Tafila-Busayra Archaeological Survey: Phase 1, 1999. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 44:507511.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, Clark, Geoffrey A., and Neeley, Michael 1988 Southern Ghors and Northeast Araba Archaeological Survey 1985 and 1986, Jordan: a Preliminary Report. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 272(1988):2345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, Herr, Larry G., Neeley, Michael P., Gagos, Traianos, Moumani, Khaled, and Rockman, Marcy 2004 The Tafila-Busayra Archaeological Survey 1999–2001, West-Central Jordan. Archaeological Reports. American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Burton, Herr, Larry G., Neeley, Michael P., Quaintance, Scott, and Andrew, Bradshaw 2001 The Tafila-Busayra Archaeological Survey: Phase 2 (2000). Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 45(2001):395411.Google Scholar
Maloy, Mark A., and Dean, Denis J. 2001 An Accuracy Assessment of Various GIS-based Viewshed Delineation Techniques. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 67:12931298.Google Scholar
Meilinger, Tobias, Hölscher, Christoph, Büchner, Simon J., and Brösamle, Martin 2007 How Much Information Do You Need? Schematic Maps in Wayfinding and Self Localisation. In Spatial Cognition V Reasoning, Action, Interaction, edited by Barkowsky, Thomas, Knauff, Markus, Ligozat, Gérard, and Montello, Daniel R., pp. 381400. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4387. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.Google Scholar
Miller, J. Maxwell 1979 Archaeological Survey of Central Moab: 1978. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research:4352.Google Scholar
Miller, J. Maxwell 1991 Archaeological Survey of the Kerak Plateau, Conducted during 1978–1982 under the Direction of J. Maxwell Miller and Jack M. Pinkerton. ASOR Archaeological Reports 1. Scholars Press, Atlanta.Google Scholar
Miller, Victor C., and Westerback, Mary E. 1989 Interpretation of Topographic Maps. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio.Google Scholar
Ministry of Economy and U.S.A. Operations Mission to Jordan 1955 The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 1:25, 000. Ministry of Economy and the U.S.A. Operations Mission to Jordan, Amman.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Hofierka, J. 1993 Interpolation by Regularized Spline with Tension: II. Application to Terrain Modeling and Surface Geometry Analysis. Mathematical Geology 25:657669.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Mitas, L. 1993 Interpolation by Regularized Spline with Tension: I. Theory and Implementation. Mathematical Geology 25:641655.Google Scholar
Morgan, Colleen, and Eve, Stuart 2012 DIY and Digital Archaeology: What Are You Doing to Participate? World Archaeology 44:521537.Google Scholar
Olszewski, Deborah L., and Coinman, Nancy R. 1998 Settlement Patterning during the Late Pleistocene in the Wadi al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan. In The Archaeology of the Wadi Al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan, 1:177204. Arizona State Anthropological Research Papers, Tempe.Google Scholar
O’Sullivan, David, and Turner, Alasdair 2001 Visibility Graphs and Landscape Visibility Analysis. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 15:221237.Google Scholar
Ottosson, Torgny 1988 What Does It Take to Read a Map? Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization 25(4):2835.Google Scholar
Pick, Jr. Herbert, L. and Thompson, William B. 1991 Topographic Map Reading. Electronic document, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA238026, accessed July 30, 2015.Google Scholar
Pullar, David, and Springer, Darren 2000 Towards Integrating GIS and Catchment Models. Environmental Modelling and Software 15:451459.Google Scholar
Rast, Walter E., and Schaub, R. Thomas 1981 The Southeastern Dead Sea Plain Expedition: An Interim Report of the 1977 Season. Vol. 46. The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research. American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston.Google Scholar
Rast, Walter E., Schaub, R. Thomas, McCreery, David W., Donahue, Jack, and McConaughy, Mark A. 1980 Preliminary Report of the 1979 Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, accessed July 30, 2015.Google Scholar
Rosen, Steven A. 1992 Nomads in Archaeology: A Response to Finkelstein and Perevolotsky. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 287:7585.Google Scholar
Royal Geographic Society of Jordan 1989 Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 1:25, 000. The Royal Geographic Society of Jordan, Amman.Google Scholar
Schaub, R. Thomas, and Rast, Walter E. 1984 Preliminary Report of the 1981 Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 254:3560.Google Scholar
Schuldenrein, Joseph, and Clark, Geoffrey A. 1994 Landscape and Prehistoric Chronology of West-Central Jordan. Geoarchaeology 9:3155.Google Scholar
Schuldenrein, Joseph, and Clark, Geoffrey A. 2003 Prehistoric Landscapes and Settlement Geography Along the Wadi Hasa, West-Central Jordan, Part II: Towards a Model of Palaeoecological Settlement for the Wadi Hasa. Environmental Archaeology 8:116.Google Scholar
Shi, Wenzhong, Cheung, Chui Kwan, and Zhu, Changqing 2003 Modelling Error Propagation in Vector-based Buffer Analysis. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 17:251271.Google Scholar
Stanislawski, Lawrence V., Dewitt, Bon A., and Shrestha, Ramesh L. 1996 Estimating Positional Accuracy of Data Layers Within a GIS Through Error Propagation. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 62:429433.Google Scholar
Stone, Elizabeth C., and Zimansky, Paul 1992 Special Report: Mesopotamia in the Aftermath of the Gulf War. Archaeology 45(3):24.Google Scholar
Tabik, S., Zapata, E.L., and Romero, L.F. 2013 Simultaneous Computation of Total Viewshed on Large High Resolution Grids. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 27:804814.Google Scholar
Theiss, Adam, Yen, David C., and Ku, Cheng-Yuan 2005 Global Positioning Systems: An Analysis of Applications, Current Development and Future Implementations. Computer Standards & Interfaces 27:89100.Google Scholar
Thorndyke, Perry W., and Hayes-Roth, Barbara 1982 Differences in Spatial Knowledge Acquired from Maps and Navigation. Cognitive Psychology 14:560589.Google Scholar
Thorndyke, Perry W., and Stasz, Cathleen 1980 Individual Differences in Procedures for Knowledge Acquisition from Maps. Cognitive Psychology 12:137175.Google Scholar
Ullah, Isaac I. T. 2011 A GIS Method for Assessing the Zone of Human-Environmental Impact around Archaeological Sites: A Test Case from the Late Neolithic of Wadi Ziqlâb, Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 38:623632.Google Scholar
Ullah, Isaac I. T. 2015a Wadi Hasa Ancient Pastoralism Project, Data Archive, Electronic document, http://figshare.com/articles/Wadi_Hasa_Ancient_Pastoralism_Project/1404216, accessed July 30, 2015Google Scholar
Ullah, Isaac I. T. 2015b r.viewshed.cva. Electronic document, https://svn.osgeo.org/grass/grass-addons/grass7/raster/r.viewshed.cva/, accessed July 30, 2015.Google Scholar
Ullah, Isaac I. T., and Bergin, Sean M. 2012 Modeling the Consequences of Village Site Location: Least Cost Path Modeling in a Coupled GIS and Agent-Based Model of Village Agropastoralism in Eastern Spain. In Least Cost Analysis of Social Landscapes: Archaeological Case Studies, edited by White, Devin A. and Sarah L Surface-Evans, pp. 155173. 1st ed. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Ullah, Isaac I. T., Schuldenrein, Joseph, and Smith, Mark 2008 Preliminary Report of the 2008 Season of the Wadi Hasa Ancient Pastoralism Project. Manuscript on file, Department of Antiquities of Jordan, Amman.Google Scholar
United States Army Map Service 1966 Jordan, 1:50, 000 Scale Topographic Map. Series K737. Army Map Service, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
United States Geological Survey (USGS) 2003 LANDSAT ETM+ Scene: LE71740392003006EDC03. L1G, Orthorectified, Terrain Corrected. USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, Sioux Falls.Google Scholar
United States Geological Survey (USGS) 2012 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Scenes: SRTM3N31E035V2, SRTM3N31E035V2. Version 3, 3 Arc-Seconds. USGS, US Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Wells, Joshua J., Kansa, Eric C., Kansa, Sarah W., Yerka, Stephen J., Anderson, David G., Bissett, Thaddeus G., Myers, Kelsey Noack, and DeMuth, R. Carl 2014 Web-Based Discovery and Integration of Archaeological Historic Properties Inventory Data: The Digital Index of North American Archaeology (DINAA). Literary and Linguistic Computing 29:349360.Google Scholar
Wheatley, David 1995 Cumulative Viewshed Analysis: A GIS-Based Method for Investigating Intervisibility, and Its Archaeological Application. In Archaeology and Geographic Information Systems: A European Perspective, edited by Lock, Gary and Stancic, Zoran, pp. 171186. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Wheatley, David, and Gillings, Mark 2002 Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS. Taylor and Francis, London.Google Scholar
White, Devin A., and Surface-Evans, Sarah L.(editors) 2012 Least Cost Analysis of Social Landscapes: Archaeological Case Studies. 1st ed. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, T. J. 2004 The Disjunction between Mediterranean and Near Eastern Survey: Is it Real? In Mediterranean Archaeological Landscapes: Current Issues, Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, edited by Effie Athanassopoulos and LuAnn Wandsnider, pp. 5568. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Witcher, R. E. 2008 (Re)surveying Mediterranean Rural Landscapes: GIS and Legacy Survey Data. Internet Archaeology 24.Google Scholar
Zubrow, Ezra B.W. 2006 Digital Archaeology. In Digital Archaeology: Bridging Method and Theory, London, edited by Evans, Thomas L. and Daly, Patrick, pp. 1031. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar